The psychology of the marathoner : of one mind and many

Psychological Assessment and Intervention at the Boston Marathon

The Boston Marathon is a highly regarded event in the running world, not just for its prestige and challenging course, but also for its implementation of a psychology team to support runners. The 2013 Boston Marathon bombings underscored the essential role that mental health support plays at this event, prompting the development and expansion of its innovative care model. This review critically outlines, evaluates, and analyzes the approach and effectiveness of the psychological care model provided to runners on race day as part of the Boston Marathon medical team, including the standard of care, how it functions, and best practices for other marathons. The implications for this review contribute to the increasing trend of providing psychological care in marathon and other athletic settings, and to provide a framework for standardizing assessment and intervention procedures for both elite and novice runners.

Brain, Metabolic, and RPE Responses during a Free-Pace Marathon: A Preliminary Study

The concept of the "central governor" in exercise physiology suggests the brain plays a key role in regulating exercise performance by continuously monitoring physiological and psychological factors. In this case report, we monitored, for the first time, a marathon runner using a metabolic portable system and an EEG wireless device during an entire marathon to understand the influence of brain activity on performance, particularly the phenomenon known as "hitting the wall". The results showed significant early modification in brain activity between the 10th and 15th kilometers, while the RPE remained low and cardiorespiratory responses were in a steady state. Thereafter, EEG responses decreased after kilometer 15, increased briefly between kilometers 20 and 25, then continued at a slower pace. After kilometer 30, both speed and respiration values dropped, along with the respiratory exchange ratio, indicating a shift from carbohydrate to fat metabolism, reflecting glycogen depletion. The runner concluded the race with a lower speed, higher RPE (above 15/20 on the Borg RPE scale), and reduced brain activity, suggesting mental exhaustion. The findings suggest that training strategies focused on recognizing and responding to brain signals could allow runners to optimize performance and pacing strategies, preventing premature exhaustion and improving overall race outcomes.

Motivation behind running among older adult runners

Background

Recreational running has greatly increased over the last decade, and different research has tried to understand the motivation that leads these amateur athletes to run. However, most research has focused on adult athletes, while the motivation behind older adult athletes has been overlooked.

Methods

The aim of this research was to analyse the motivational aspects of amateur runners aged over 50 years, and to consider the influence that years of practice, type of participation and some socio-demographical variables have on these older adults’ motivation behind running. 244 older adult amateur athletes in total completed an online survey with the 56 items contained in the motivation of marathoners scales (MOMS), 108 of whom were female (44%), and 136 were male runners (56%). Athletes were asked about their years’ running experience (< 1 year, 1–5 years, 6–10 years, > 10 years), their participation in running events (recreationally, half marathon, marathon, ultramarathon) and age (ranges 50–60, more than 60 years), gender (male, female), family life (whether in a relationship or not), and whether they had children (yes, no).

Results

The results showed statistical differences in the nine MOMS dimensions in terms of years’ running experience and participation in different running events. Moreover, older adult runners’ gender and age subsequently showed statistical differences with five and six motivational factors respectively, while athletes that did not have children were more likely to run regarding competition and showing recognition. Family life did not show any statistical association with any of the dimensions on the scale in this population, while regression analyses showed that, mainly, years’ running experience and participation were positively predicted, together with most motivational dimensions, while having children was negatively predicted in some of them.

Conclusions

This study showed that older adult runners’ reasons for participating differ from those obtained in previous studies, especially regarding training experience and participation in events. Therefore, the older adult population should be specifically addressed.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13102-021-00366-1.

Individual and Economic Characteristics as Determinants of Brazilian Runners’ Motivation

Due to differences in runners’ profiles, which can be related to sociodemographic characteristics, motivations for running can vary. This study aimed to identify Brazilian runners’ motivations for their practice, and the factors associated among runners who point to look for performance improvement as their main motivation. The sample comprised 1097 non-professional road runners. The questionnaire “Profile characterization and associated factors for runner’s performance” was used. The results showed that the oldest athletes and those with the highest income levels presented lower likelihood of reporting performance improvement as their main motivation for taking part in running. In terms of income level, results showed that as this increased, there was a lower chance of getting involved in practice with a focus on incremental improvements in performance. Differences between sexes were also observed, with men more likely to indicate performance improvement as their motivation for running. In Brazil, most runners reported “health” as their main motivation for running. Women, older runners, and those with higher income levels were less likely to point to performance improvements as their main motivation for taking up running.

Do Sex, Age, and Marital Status Influence the Motivations of Amateur Marathon Runners? The Poznan Marathon Case Study

The purpose of this research was to describe reasons for participating in a marathon and their association with marital status, age, and sex. Four hundred and ninety-three runners in total, 144 of whom were women and 349 of whom were men, completed the Polish version of the Motivations of Marathoners Scale (MOMS), containing nine dimensions, which was released through an online survey at the Poznan Marathon in Poland (2019). Athletes’ age (ranges 19–25, 26–35, 36–50, 51–70 years) and marital status (single, married, divorced) were asked of the participants. The results showed that statistical significant associations were found between athletes’ motivational aspects and athletes’ sex and age. To this end, three MOMS dimensions were statistically associated with athletes’ sex, a further three dimensions were different age-wise, and, lastly, marital status did not show differences in any of the dimensions. Moreover, statistical differences were not found in the multivariate analysis comparing marital status, sex, and age range according to MOMS. Recreational runners’ reasons for participating in a marathon are different depending on certain sociodemographic variables; therefore, these characteristics should be considered when addressing different athletes in order to provide them with the most suitable information for taking part in such events.

What are the Limiting Factors During an Ultra-Marathon? A Systematic Review of the Scientific Literature

This review aimed to analyse factors that limited performance in ultra-marathons and mountain ultra-marathons. A literature search in one database (PubMed) was conducted in February 2019. Quality of information of the articles was evaluated using the Oxford´s level of evidence and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. The search strategy yielded 111 total citations from which 23 met the inclusion criteria. Twenty one of the 23 included studies had a level of evidence 2b (individual cohort study), while the 2 remaining studies had a level of evidence of 5 (expert opinion). Also, the mean score in the PEDro scale was 3.65 ± 1.61, with values ranging from 0 to 7. Participants were characterised as experienced or well-trained athletes in all of the studies. The total number of participants was 1002 (893 men, 86 women and 23 unknown). The findings of this review suggest that fatigue in ultra-endurance events is a multifactorial phenomenon that includes physiological, neuromuscular, biomechanical and cognitive factors. Improved exercise performance during ultra-endurance events seems to be related to higher VO_2max values and maximal aerobic speed (especially during submaximal efforts sustained over a long time), lower oxygen cost of transport and greater running experience.

Devising a Pace-Based Definition for "The Wall": An Observational Analysis of Marathoners' Subjective Experiences of Fatigue

CONTEXT

Many runners report "hitting The Wall" (HTW) during a marathon (42.2 km). However, the performance manifestation of this subjectively experienced phenomenon remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To identify a pace-based classification for HTW by integrating subjective reports of fatigue and runners' pacing profiles during a marathon.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Public race event (2018 Dublin Marathon).

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

Eighty-three runners (28 [34%] women, 55 [66%] men, age = 41.5 ± 9.1 years, height = 1.73 ± 0.09 m, mass = 70.2 ± 10.1 kg).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

The pacing profiles for respondents to our postrace questionnaire that concerned the phenomenon of HTW were evaluated. Receiver operating characteristic analyses were performed on discretized outcomes of the time series of marathoners' paces during the race.

RESULTS

Using the receiver operating characteristic analyses, we observed that runners could be classified as having experienced HTW if they ran any 1-km segment 11% slower than the average of the remaining segments of the race (accuracy = 84.6%, sensitivity = 1, specificity = 0.6) or if the standard deviation of the normalized 1-km split times exceeded 0.0532 (accuracy = 83%, sensitivity = 0.818, specificity = 0.8). Similarly, runners could be classified as having experienced HTW if they ran any 5-km segment 7.3% slower than the average of the remaining 5-km segments of the race (accuracy = 84.6%, sensitivity = 1, specificity = 0.644) or if the standard deviation of the normalized 5-km split times exceeded 0.0346 (accuracy = 82%, sensitivity = 0.909, specificity = 0.622).

CONCLUSIONS

These pace-based criteria could be valuable to researchers evaluating HTW prevalence in cohorts for whom they lack subjective questionnaire data.

Listening to motivational music mitigates heat-related reductions in exercise performance

PURPOSE

To examine whether listening to motivational music mitigates heat-related reductions in exercise performance, and leads to a greater increase in thermal and cardiovascular strain.

METHODS

Twelve participants (26 ± 5 y, 77.5 ± 17.0 kg, 49 ± 8 ml·min^-1·kg^-1) completed 30-min of cycling preload at 50% VO_2max followed by a 5-min rest and 15-min cycling time trial on seven separate occasions; three familiarisation sessions in a 20 °C room and four experimental trials in a climatic chamber regulated at either 21 °C, 50%RH (NEU) or 36 °C, 50%RH (HOT), each with and without the participant listening to self-selected motivational music during the 5-min rest and 15-min time trial. Measures of total work, core temperature and heart rate and blood pressure (from which rate-pressure product for cardiovascular strain was calculated), were recorded.

RESULTS

Without music, total work was lower (p < .001) in the HOT condition (168 ± 59 kJ) relative to the NEU condition (193 ± 60 kJ). With music, total work was greater relative to no music in both the NEU condition (203 ± 60 kJ vs 193 ± 60 kJ; p = .008) and HOT condition (183 ± 63 kJ vs 168 ± 60 kJ; p = .029). The greater total work in the HOT condition with music relative to no music resulted in a higher (p = .006) core temperature (38.7 ± 0.4 °C vs 38.6 ± 0.5 °C) and a higher (p < .001) rate-pressure product (34.8 ± 7.1 mmHg·beats·min^-1·10^-3 vs 27.8 ± 3.7 mmHg·beats·min^-1·10^-3).

CONCLUSION

Listening to motivational music mitigated heat-related reductions in exercise performance with an improvement in performance in the heat of ~10%. This improved exercise performance led to a greater increase in thermal and cardiovascular strain in the heat but did not exceed levels typically associated with an elevated health risk in a young, healthy population.

Crawling to the finish line: why do endurance runners collapse? Implications for understanding of mechanisms underlying pacing and fatigue

Effective regulation of pace enables the majority of runners to complete competitive endurance events without mishap. However, some runners do experience exercise-induced collapse associated with postural hypotension, which in rare cases results from life-threatening conditions such as cardiac disorders, cerebral events, heat stroke and hyponatraemia. Despite the experience of either catastrophic system failure or extreme peripheral muscle fatigue, some runners persist in attempting to reach the finish line, and this often results in a sequence of dynamic changes in posture and gait that we have termed the 'Foster collapse positions'. The initial stage involves an unstable gait and the runner assumes the 'Early Foster' collapse position with hips slightly flexed and their head lowered. This unstable gait further degrades into a shuffle referred to as the 'Half Foster' collapse position characterized by hip flexion of approximately 90° with the trunk and head parallel to the ground. At this point, the muscles of postural support and the co-ordination of propulsion begin to be compromised. If the condition worsens, the runner will fall to the ground and assume the 'Full Foster' collapse position, which involves crawling forwards on knees and elbows towards the finish line, with their trunk angled such that the head is at a lower angle than the hips. Upon reaching the finish line, or sometimes before that, the runner may collapse and remain prone until recovering either with or without assistance or medical treatment. The Foster collapse positions are indicative of a final, likely primordial, protective mechanism designed to attenuate postural hypotension, cardiac 'pump' insufficiency or cerebral blood flow deficiency. Continuing to attempt to reach the finish line in this impaired state is also perhaps indicative of a high psychological drive or a variety of neurological and psychological pathologies such as diminished sensitivity to interoceptive feedback, unrealistic situational appraisal or extreme motivational drives. A better understanding of the physiological, neurological and psychological antecedents of the Foster collapse sequence remains an important issue with practical implications for runner safety and theoretical understanding of collapses during exercise.

Exposing shame in dancers and athletes: shame, trauma, and dissociation in a nonclinical population

The relationship between shame, past traumatic events, and dissociation in a nonclinical university and community sample of pre-professional/professional dancers (n = 140) and recreational/competitive athletes (n = 99) was investigated in this cross-sectional study, which was approved by an institutional review board. Participants completed 3 self-report measures (i.e., the Dissociative Experiences Scale, Internalized Shame Scale, Traumatic Events Questionnaire), and the analyses included correlation, multivariate analysis of variance, and a series of regression analyses. The investigation indicated that dancers had increased shame and dissociation in comparison to athletes, and males had more traumatic experiences and increased dissociation relative to females. In the regression analyses, being a dancer, traumatic experiences, and shame predicted dissociation. Clinical recommendations include integrating shame treatment with dissociative-disordered patients and noting that dancers may need more psychological skill training to manage shame and dissociation.

Triathlon: how to mentally prepare for the big race

With the mastery of 3 sports required, a triathlon can be a daunting mental challenge. Some liken a triathlon to a physical game of chess. A triathlete must mentally assess their physical ability across 3 sports against their competitors, the environment, and, most of all, themselves. The mental preparation required for a triathlon is often minimized, but its importance should not be underestimated. Appropriate mental planning should be carried out during training. The need for nutrition, race planning, visualization, imaging, and possible changes in conditions should all be anticipated. Anxiousness at the start of the event is normal, but this energy needs to be channeled appropriately, or it can be detrimental. Athletes who arrive at race day with a sound mental strategy typically perform better.

Can neuromuscular fatigue explain running strategies and performance in ultra-marathons?: the flush model

While the industrialized world adopts a largely sedentary lifestyle, ultra-marathon running races have become increasingly popular in the last few years in many countries. The ability to run long distances is also considered to have played a role in human evolution. This makes the issue of ultra-long distance physiology important. In the ability to run multiples of 10 km (up to 1000 km in one stage), fatigue resistance is critical. Fatigue is generally defined as strength loss (i.e. a decrease in maximal voluntary contraction [MVC]), which is known to be dependent on the type of exercise. Critical task variables include the intensity and duration of the activity, both of which are very specific to ultra-endurance sports. They also include the muscle groups involved and the type of muscle contraction, two variables that depend on the sport under consideration. The first part of this article focuses on the central and peripheral causes of the alterations to neuromuscular function that occur in ultra-marathon running. Neuromuscular function evaluation requires measurements of MVCs and maximal electrical/magnetic stimulations; these provide an insight into the factors in the CNS and the muscles implicated in fatigue. However, such measurements do not necessarily predict how muscle function may influence ultra-endurance running and whether this has an effect on speed regulation during a real competition (i.e. when pacing strategies are involved). In other words, the nature of the relationship between fatigue as measured using maximal contractions/stimulation and submaximal performance limitation/regulation is questionable. To investigate this issue, we are suggesting a holistic model in the second part of this article. This model can be applied to all endurance activities, but is specifically adapted to ultra-endurance running: the flush model. This model has the following four components: (i) the ball-cock (or buoy), which can be compared with the rate of perceived exertion, and can increase or decrease based on (ii) the filling rate and (iii) the water evacuated through the waste pipe, and (iv) a security reserve that allows the subject to prevent physiological damage. We are suggesting that central regulation is not only based on afferent signals arising from the muscles and peripheral organs, but is also dependent on peripheral fatigue and spinal/supraspinal inhibition (or disfacilitation) since these alterations imply a higher central drive for a given power output. This holistic model also explains how environmental conditions, sleep deprivation/mental fatigue, pain-killers or psychostimulants, cognitive or nutritional strategies may affect ultra-running performance.

Emotions and trait emotional intelligence among ultra-endurance runners

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate relationships between trait emotional intelligence and emotional state changes over the course of an ultra-endurance foot race covering a route of approximately 175 miles (282 km) and held in set stages over six days.

DESIGN

A repeated measures field design that sought to maintain ecological validity was used. Trait emotional intelligence was defined as a relatively stable concept that should predict adaptive emotional states experienced over the duration of the race and therefore associate with pleasant emotions during a 6-stage endurance event.

METHOD

Thirty-four runners completed a self-report measure of trait emotional intelligence before the event started. Participants reported emotional states before and after each of the six races.

RESULTS

Repeated measures ANOVA results showed significant variations in emotions over time and a main effect for trait emotional intelligence. Runners high in self-report trait emotional intelligence also reported higher pleasant and lower unpleasant emotions than runners low in trait emotional intelligence.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings lend support to the notion that trait emotional intelligence associates with adaptive psychological states, suggesting that it may be a key individual difference that explains why some athletes respond to repeated bouts of hard exercise better than others. Future research should test the effectiveness of interventions designed to enhance trait emotional intelligence and examine the attendant impact on emotional responses to intense exercise during multi-stage events.

Effect of plyometric vs. dynamic weight training on the energy cost of running

The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of 2 strength training methods on the energy cost of running (Cr). Thirty-five moderately to well-trained male endurance runners were randomly assigned to either a control group (C) or 2 intervention groups. All groups performed the same endurance-training program during an 8-week period. Intervention groups added a weekly strength training session designed to improve neuromuscular qualities. Sessions were matched for volume and intensity using either plyometric training (PT) or purely concentric contractions with added weight (dynamic weight training [DWT]). We found an interaction between time and group (p < 0.05) and an effect of time (p < 0.01) for Cr. Plyometric training induced a larger decrease of Cr (218 +/- 16 to 203 +/- 13 ml.kg.km) than DWT (207 +/- 15 to 199 +/- 12 ml.kg.km), whereas it remained unchanged in C. Pre-post changes in Cr were correlated with initial Cr (r = -0.57, p < 0.05). Peak vertical jump height (VJHpeak) increased significantly (p < 0.01) for both experimental groups (DWT = 33.4 +/- 6.2 to 34.9 +/- 6.1 cm, PT = 33.3 +/- 4.0 to 35.3 +/- 3.6 cm) but not for C. All groups showed improvements (p < 0.05) in Perf3000 (C = 711 +/- 107 to 690 +/- 109 seconds, DWT = 755 +/- 87 to 724 +/- 77 seconds, PT = 748 +/- 81 to 712 +/- 76 seconds). Plyometric training were more effective than DWT in improving Cr in moderately to well-trained male endurance runners showing that athletes and coaches should include explosive strength training in their practices with a particular attention on plyometric exercises. Future research is needed to establish the origin of this adaptation.