Programmable DNA binding oligomers for control of transcription

Double Stranded DNA Binding Stapled Peptides: An Emerging Tool for Transcriptional Regulation

Stapled peptides have rapidly established themselves as a powerful technique to mimic α-helical interactions with a short peptide sequence. There are many examples of stapled peptides that successfully disrupt α-helix-mediated protein-protein interactions, with an example currently in clinical trials. DNA-protein interactions are also often mediated by α-helices and are involved in all transcriptional regulation processes. Unlike DNA-binding small molecules, which typically lack DNA sequence selectivity, DNA-binding proteins bind with high affinity and high selectivity. These are ideal candidates for the design DNA-binding stapled peptides. Despite the parallel to protein-protein interaction disrupting stapled peptides and the need for sequence specific DNA binders, there are very few DNA-binding stapled peptides. In this review we examine all the known DNA-binding stapled peptides. Their design concepts are compared to stapled peptides that disrupt protein-protein interactions and based on the few examples in the literature, DNA-binding stapled peptide trends are discussed.

X-ray Structure Characterization of the Selective Recognition of AT Base Pair Sequences

The rational design of small molecules that target specific DNA sequences is a promising strategy to modulate gene expression. This report focuses on a diamidinobenzimidazole compound, whose selective binding to the minor groove of AT DNA sequences holds broad significance in the molecular recognition of AT-rich human promoter sequences. The objective of this study is to provide a more detailed and systematized understanding, at an atomic level, of the molecular recognition mechanism of different AT-specific sequences by a rationally designed minor groove binder. The specialized method of X-ray crystallography was utilized to investigate how the sequence-dependent recognition properties in general, A-tract, and alternating AT sequences affect the binding of diamidinobenzimidazole in the DNA minor groove. While general and A-tract AT sequences give a narrower minor groove, the alternating AT sequences intrinsically have a wider minor groove which typically constricts upon binding. A strong and direct hydrogen bond between the N-H of the benzimidazole and an H-bond acceptor atom in the minor groove is essential for DNA recognition in all sequences described. In addition, the diamidine compound specifically utilizes an interfacial water molecule for its DNA binding. DNA complexes of AATT and AAAAAA recognition sites show that the diamidine compound can bind in two possible orientations with a preference for water-assisted hydrogen bonding at either cationic end. The complex structures of AAATTT, ATAT, ATATAT, and AAAA are bound in a singular orientation. Analysis of the helical parameters shows a minor groove expansion of about 1 Å across all the nonalternating DNA complexes. The results from this systematic approach will convey a greater understanding of the specific recognition of a diverse array of AT-rich sequences by small molecules and more insight into the design of small molecules with enhanced specificity to AT and mixed DNA sequences.

Nanomolar Binding of an Antibiotic Peptide to DNA Measured with Raman Spectroscopy

Immobilization of DNA to surfaces offers a convenient means of screening the binding affinity and selectivity of potential small-molecule therapeutic candidates. Unfortunately, most surface-sensitive methods for detecting these binding interactions are not informative of the molecular structure, information that is valuable for understanding the non-covalent interactions that stabilize binding. In this work, we report a method to meet this challenge by employing confocal Raman microscopy to quantify the association of a minor-groove-binding antimicrobial peptide, netropsin, to duplex DNA hairpin sequences immobilized on the interior surfaces of porous silica particles. To assess binding selectivity, particles functionalized with different sequences of DNA were equilibrated with solutions of 100 nM netropsin, and selective association was detected based on the presence of netropsin Raman scattering in the particles. The selectivity study revealed that netropsin binds to sequences of duplex DNA having AT-rich recognition regions. To quantify binding affinities, these AT-rich DNA sequences were equilibrated with a range of netropsin solution concentrations (1 to 100 nM). Raman scattering intensities of netropsin versus solution concentration were well described by single-binding-site Langmuir isotherms with nanomolar dissociation constants, in agreement with previous isothermal calorimetry and surface plasmon resonance results. Target sequence binding was accompanied with changes in netropsin and DNA vibrational modes consistent with the hydrogen bonding between the amide groups of netropsin and adenine and thymine bases in the DNA minor groove. The binding of netropsin to a control sequence lacking the AT-rich recognition region exhibited an affinity nearly 4 orders of magnitude weaker than found for the target sequences. The Raman spectrum of netropsin interacting with this control sequence showed broad pyrrole and amide mode vibrations at frequencies similar to a free solution, revealing less constrained conformations compared with the specific binding interactions observed with AT-rich sequences.

RpoN-Based stapled peptides with improved DNA binding suppress Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence

Stapled peptides have the ability to mimic α-helices involved in protein binding and have proved to be effective pharmacological agents for disrupting protein-protein interactions. DNA-binding proteins such as transcription factors bind their cognate DNA sequences via an α-helix interacting with the major groove of DNA. We previously developed a stapled peptide based on the bacterial alternative sigma factor RpoN capable of binding the RpoN DNA promoter sequence and inhibiting RpoN-mediated expression in Escherichia coli. We have elucidated a structure-activity relationship for DNA binding by this stapled peptide, improving DNA binding affinity constants in the high nM range. Lead peptides were shown to have low toxicity as determined by their low hemolytic activity at 100 μM and were shown to have anti-virulence activity in a Galleria mellonella model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. These findings support further preclinical development of stapled peptides as antivirulence agents targeting P. aeruginosa.

Telomere-specific chromatin capture using a pyrrole-imidazole polyamide probe for the identification of proteins and non-coding RNAs

Background

Knowing chromatin components at a DNA regulatory element at any given time is essential for understanding how the element works during cellular proliferation, differentiation and development. A region-specific chromatin purification is an invaluable approach to dissecting the comprehensive chromatin composition at a particular region. Several methods (e.g., PICh, enChIP, CAPTURE and CLASP) have been developed for isolating and analyzing chromatin components. However, all of them have some shortcomings in identifying non-coding RNA associated with DNA regulatory elements.

Results

We have developed a new approach for affinity purification of specific chromatin segments employing an N-methyl pyrrole (P)-N-methylimidazole (I) (PI) polyamide probe, which binds to a specific sequence in double-stranded DNA via Watson–Crick base pairing as a minor groove binder. This new technique is called proteomics and RNA-omics of isolated chromatin segments (PI-PRICh). Using PI-PRICh to isolate mouse and human telomeric components, we found enrichments of shelterin proteins, the well-known telomerase RNA component (TERC) and telomeric repeat-containing RNA (TERRA). When PI-PRICh was performed for alternative lengthening of telomere (ALT) cells with highly recombinogenic telomeres, in addition to the conventional telomeric chromatin, we obtained chromatin regions containing telomeric repeat insertions scattered in the genome and their associated RNAs.

Conclusion

PI-PRICh reproducibly identified both the protein and RNA components of telomeric chromatin when targeting telomere repeats. PI polyamide is a promising alternative to simultaneously isolate associated proteins and RNAs of sequence-specific chromatin regions under native conditions, allowing better understanding of chromatin organization and functions within the cell.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13072-021-00421-8.

Formation of a DNA triple helical structure at BOLF1 gene of human herpesvirus 4 (HH4) genome

Eukaryotic genomes contain a large number of pyrimidine-purine rich regions and such regions can assume varied DNA conformations, including triple-stranded structures. These structures have fascinated scientists because of their considerable therapeutic applications. These structures have also profound implications in the field of nanotechnology as they can be used to develop DNA-based nanostructures and materials. Therefore, for any application, it is important to understand the formation of triplex structures, both in quantitative and qualitative terms. A combination of gel electrophoresis, UV-thermal denaturation and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy was used to investigate the formation of inter- as well as intramolecular triplex, in pyrimidine motif at BOLF1 gene of human herpesvirus 4 (HH4) genome. This gene codes for inner tegument protein, which plays crucial roles in viral replication. The said oligopurine•oligopyrimidine duplex was targeted via a designed triple helix forming oligopyrimidine nucleotide (TFO) in intermolecular as well as intramolecular fashion. Our studies revealed that intramolecular triplex formation takes place at acidic as well as at neutral pH; whereas low pH is required for its intermolecular version. This comparative study between inter- and intramolecular triplex allowed us to demonstrate that intramolecular structure is more stable to its intermolecular counterpart. Numerous models for mono-, bi- and trimolecular structures adopted by these DNA sequences have been suggested. This report adds to our existing knowledge about DNA triple helical structures.

Structural basis of DNA duplex distortion induced by thiazole-containing hairpin polyamides

This manuscript reports the molecular basis for double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) binding of hairpin polyamides incorporating a 5-alkyl thiazole (Nt) unit. Hairpin polyamides containing an N-terminal Nt unit induce higher melting stabilisation of target dsDNA sequences relative to an archetypical hairpin polyamide incorporating an N-terminal imidazole (Im) unit. However, modification of the N-terminus from Im to Nt-building blocks results in an increase in dsDNA binding affinity but lower G-selectivity. A general G-selectivity trend is observed for Nt-containing polyamide analogues. G-selectivity increases as the steric bulk in the Nt 5-position increases. Solution-based NMR structural studies reveal differences in the modulation of the target DNA duplex of Nt-containing hairpin polyamides relative to the Im-containing archetype. A structural hallmark of an Nt polyamide•dsDNA complex is a more significant degree of major groove compression of the target dsDNA sequence relative to the Im-containing hairpin polyamide.

Direct and Indirect Targeting of HOXA9 Transcription Factor in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

HOXA9 (Homeobox A9) is a homeotic transcription factor known for more than two decades to be associated with leukemia. The expression of HOXA9 homeoprotein is associated with anterior-posterior patterning during embryonic development, and its expression is then abolished in most adult cells, with the exception of hematopoietic progenitor cells. The oncogenic function of HOXA9 was first assessed in human acute myeloid leukemia (AML), particularly in the mixed-phenotype associated lineage leukemia (MPAL) subtype. HOXA9 expression in AML is associated with aggressiveness and a poor prognosis. Since then, HOXA9 has been involved in other hematopoietic malignancies and an increasing number of solid tumors. Despite this, HOXA9 was for a long time not targeted to treat cancer, mainly since, as a transcription factor, it belongs to a class of protein long considered to be an "undruggable" target; however, things have now evolved. The aim of the present review is to focus on the different aspects of HOXA9 targeting that could be achieved through multiple ways: (1) indirectly, through the inhibition of its expression, a strategy acting principally at the epigenetic level; or (2) directly, through the inhibition of its transcription factor function by acting at either the protein/protein interaction or the protein/DNA interaction interfaces.

Structural and Kinetic Profiling of Allosteric Modulation of Duplex DNA Induced by DNA-Binding Polyamide Analogues

A combined structural and quantitative biophysical profile of the DNA binding affinity, kinetics and sequence‐selectivity of hairpin polyamide analogues is described. DNA duplexes containing either target polyamide binding sites or mismatch sequences are immobilized on a microelectrode surface. Quantitation of the DNA binding profile of polyamides containing N‐terminal 1‐alkylimidazole (Im) units exhibit picomolar binding affinities for their target sequences, whereas 5‐alkylthiazole (Nt) units are an order of magnitude lower (low nanomolar). Comparative NMR structural analyses of the polyamide series shows that the steric bulk distal to the DNA‐binding face of the hairpin iPr‐Nt polyamide plays an influential role in the allosteric modulation of the overall DNA duplex structure. This combined kinetic and structural study provides a foundation to develop next‐generation hairpin designs where the DNA‐binding profile of polyamides is reconciled with their physicochemical properties.

Bound Compound, Interfacial Water, and Phenyl Ring Rotation Dynamics of a Compound in the DNA Minor Groove

DB2277, a heterocyclic diamidine, is a successful design for mixed base pair (bp) DNA sequence recognition. The compound has a central aza-benzimidazole group that forms two H-bonds with a GC bp that has flanking AT bps. The nuclear magnetic resonance structure of the DB2277-DNA complex with an AAGATA recognition site sequence was determined, and here we report extended molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the structure. DB2277 has two terminal phenyl-amidine groups, one of which is directly linked to the DB2277 heterocyclic core and the other through a flexible -OCH₂- group. The flexibly linked phenyl is too far from the minor groove floor to make direct H-bonds but is linked to an AT bp through water-mediated H-bonds. The flexibly linked phenyl-amidine with water-mediated H-bonds to the bases at the floor of the minor groove suggested that it might rotate in time spans accessible in MD. To test this idea, we conducted multimicrosecond MD simulations to determine if these phenyl rotations could be observed for a bound compound. In a 3 μs simulation, highly dynamic torsional motions were observed for the -OCH₂-linked phenyl but not for the other phenyl. The dynamics periodically reached a level to allow 180° rotation of the phenyl while it was still bound in the minor groove. This is the first observation of rotation of a phenyl bound to DNA, and the results provide mechanistic details about how a rotation can occur as well as how mixed bp recognition can occur for monomer compounds bound to the minor groove.

Region-specific alteration of histone modification by LSD1 inhibitor conjugated with pyrrole-imidazole polyamide

Epigenome regulates gene expression to determine cell fate, and accumulation of epigenomic aberrations leads to diseases, including cancer. NCD38 inhibits lysine-specific demethylase-1 (LSD1), a histone demethylase targeting H3K4me1 and H3K4me2, but not H3K4me3. In this study, we conjugated NCD38 with a potent small molecule called pyrrole (Py) imidazole (Im) polyamide, to analyze whether targets of the inhibitor could be regulated in a sequence-specific manner. We synthesized two conjugates using β-Ala (β) as a linker, i.e., NCD38-β-β-Py-Py-Py-Py (NCD38-β2P4) recognizing WWWWWW sequence, and NCD38-β-β-Py-Im-Py-Py (NCD38-β2PIPP) recognizing WWCGWW sequence. When RKO cells were treated with NCD38, H3K4me2 levels increased in 103 regions with significant activation of nearby genes (P = 0.03), whereas H3K4me3 levels were not obviously increased. H3K27ac levels were also increased in 458 regions with significant activation of nearby genes (P = 3 × 10-10), and these activated regions frequently included GC-rich sequences, but less frequently included AT-rich sequences (P < 1 × 10-15) or WWCGWW sequences (P = 2 × 10-13). When treated with NCD38-β2P4, 234 regions showed increased H3K27ac levels with significant activation of nearby genes (P = 2 × 10-11), including significantly fewer GC-rich sequences (P < 1 × 10-15) and significantly more AT-rich sequences (P < 1 × 10-15) compared with NCD38 treatment. When treated with NCD38-β2PIPP, 82 regions showed increased H3K27ac levels, including significantly fewer GC-rich sequences (P = 1 × 10-11) and fewer AT-rich sequences (P = 0.005), but significantly more WWCGWW sequences (P = 0.0001) compared with NCD38 treatment. These indicated that target regions of epigenomic inhibitors could be modified in a sequence-specific manner and that conjugation of Py-Im polyamides may be useful for this purpose.

Targeting Transcription Factors for Cancer Treatment

Transcription factors are involved in a large number of human diseases such as cancers for which they account for about 20% of all oncogenes identified so far. For long time, with the exception of ligand-inducible nuclear receptors, transcription factors were considered as “undruggable” targets. Advances knowledge of these transcription factors, in terms of structure, function (expression, degradation, interaction with co-factors and other proteins) and the dynamics of their mode of binding to DNA has changed this postulate and paved the way for new therapies targeted against transcription factors. Here, we discuss various ways to target transcription factors in cancer models: by modulating their expression or degradation, by blocking protein/protein interactions, by targeting the transcription factor itself to prevent its DNA binding either through a binding pocket or at the DNA-interacting site, some of these inhibitors being currently used or evaluated for cancer treatment. Such different targeting of transcription factors by small molecules is facilitated by modern chemistry developing a wide variety of original molecules designed to specifically abort transcription factor and by an increased knowledge of their pathological implication through the use of new technologies in order to make it possible to improve therapeutic control of transcription factor oncogenic functions.

Inhibition of Bacterial Gene Transcription with an RpoN-Based Stapled Peptide

In response to environmental and other stresses, the σ⁵⁴ subunit of bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP) controls expression of several genes that play a significant role in the virulence of both plant and animal pathogens. Recruitment of σ⁵⁴ to RNAP initiates promoter-specific transcription via the double-stranded DNA denaturation mechanism of the cofactor. The RpoN box, a recognition helix found in the C-terminal region of σ⁵⁴, has been identified as the component necessary for major groove insertion at the -24 position of the promoter. We employed the hydrocarbon stapled peptide methodology to design and synthesize stapled σ⁵⁴ peptides capable of penetrating Gram-negative bacteria, binding the σ⁵⁴ promoter, and blocking the interaction between endogenous σ⁵⁴ and its target DNA sequence, thereby reducing transcription and activation of σ⁵⁴ response genes.

Sequence-specific DNA binding Pyrrole-imidazole polyamides and their applications

Pyrrole-imidazole polyamides (Py-Im polyamides) are cell-permeable compounds that bind to the minor groove of double-stranded DNA in a sequence-specific manner without causing denaturation of the DNA. These compounds can be used to control gene expression and to stain specific sequences in cells. Here, we review the history, structural variations, and functional investigations of Py-Im polyamides.

Triplex DNA Nanostructures: From Basic Properties to Applications

Triplex nucleic acids have recently attracted interest as part of the rich "toolbox" of structures used to develop DNA-based nanostructures and materials. This Review addresses the use of DNA triplexes to assemble sensing platforms and molecular switches. Furthermore, the pH-induced, switchable assembly and dissociation of triplex-DNA-bridged nanostructures are presented. Specifically, the aggregation/deaggregation of nanoparticles, the reversible oligomerization of origami tiles and DNA circles, and the use of triplex DNA structures as functional units for the assembly of pH-responsive systems and materials are described. Examples include semiconductor-loaded DNA-stabilized microcapsules, DNA-functionalized dye-loaded metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and the pH-induced release of the loads. Furthermore, the design of stimuli-responsive DNA-based hydrogels undergoing reversible pH-induced hydrogel-to-solution transitions using triplex nucleic acids is introduced, and the use of triplex DNA to assemble shape-memory hydrogels is discussed. An outlook for possible future applications of triplex nucleic acids is also provided.

H-Bond Self-Assembly: Folding versus Duplex Formation

Linear oligomers equipped with complementary H-bond donor (D) and acceptor (A) sites can interact via intermolecular H-bonds to form duplexes or fold via intramolecular H-bonds. These competing equilibria have been quantified using NMR titration and dilution experiments for seven systems featuring different recognition sites and backbones. For all seven architectures, duplex formation is observed for homo-sequence 2-mers (AA·DD) where there are no competing folding equilibria. The corresponding hetero-sequence AD 2-mers also form duplexes, but the observed self-association constants are strongly affected by folding equilibria in the monomeric states. When the backbone is flexible (five or more rotatable bonds separating the recognition sites), intramolecular H-bonding is favored, and the folded state is highly populated. For these systems, the stability of the AD·AD duplex is 1-2 orders of magnitude lower than that of the corresponding AA·DD duplex. However, for three architectures which have more rigid backbones (fewer than five rotatable bonds), intramolecular interactions are not observed, and folding does not compete with duplex formation. These systems are promising candidates for the development of longer, mixed-sequence synthetic information molecules that show sequence-selective duplex formation.

Inhibition of DNA Methylation at the MLH1 Promoter Region Using Pyrrole-Imidazole Polyamide

Aberrant DNA methylation causes major epigenetic changes and has been implicated in cancer following the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes by hypermethylation of promoter CpG islands. Although methylated DNA regions can be randomly demethylated by 5-azacytidine and 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine, site-specific inhibition of DNA methylation, for example, in the promoter region of a specific gene, has yet to be technically achieved. Hairpin pyrrole (Py)-imidazole (Im) polyamides are small molecules that can be designed to recognize and bind to particular DNA sequences. In this study, we synthesized the hairpin polyamide MLH1_-16 (Py-Im-β-Im-Im-Py-γ-Im-Py-β-Im-Py-Py) to target a CpG site 16 bp upstream of the transcription start site of the human MLH1 gene. MLH1 is known to be frequently silenced by promoter hypermethylation, causing microsatellite instability and a hypermutation phenotype in cancer. We show that MLH1_-16 binds to the target site and that CpG methylation around the binding site is selectively inhibited in vitro. MLH1_non, which does not have a recognition site in the MLH1 promoter, neither binds to the sequence nor inhibits DNA methylation in the region. When MLH1_-16 was used to treat RKO human colorectal cancer cells in a remethylating system involving the MLH1 promoter under hypoxic conditions (1% O₂), methylation of the MLH1 promoter was inhibited in the region surrounding the compound binding site. Silencing of the MLH1 expression was also inhibited. Promoter methylation and silencing of MLH1 were not inhibited when MLH1_non was added. These results indicate that Py-Im polyamides can act as sequence-specific antagonists of CpG methylation in living cells.

Telomere Visualization in Tissue Sections using Pyrrole-Imidazole Polyamide Probes

Pyrrole–Imidazole (PI) polyamides bind to specific DNA sequences in the minor groove with high affinity. Specific DNA labeling by PI polyamides does not require DNA denaturation with harsh treatments of heat and formamide and has the advantages of rapid and less disruptive processing. Previously, we developed tandem hairpin PI polyamide probes (TH59 series), which label telomeres in cultured cell lines more efficiently than conventional methods, such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Here, we demonstrate that a TH59 derivative, HPTH59-b, along with immunostaining for specifying cell types in the tissues, visualizes telomeres in mouse and human tissue sections. Quantitative measurements of telomere length with single-cell resolution suggested shorter telomeres in the proliferating cell fractions of tumor than in non-tumor tissues. Thus, PI polyamides are a promising alternative for telomere labeling in clinical research, as well as in cell biology.

Sequence-specific DNA binding by long hairpin pyrrole-imidazole polyamides containing an 8-amino-3,6-dioxaoctanoic acid unit

With the aim of improving aqueous solubility, we designed and synthesized five N-methylpyrrole (Py)-N-methylimidazole (Im) polyamides capable of recognizing 9-bp sequences. Their DNA-binding affinities and sequence specificities were evaluated by SPR and Bind-n-Seq analyses. The design of polyamide 1 was based on a conventional model, with three consecutive Py or Im rings separated by a β-alanine to match the curvature and twist of long DNA helices. Polyamides 2 and 3 contained an 8-amino-3,6-dioxaoctanoic acid (AO) unit, which has previously only been used as a linker within linear Py-Im polyamides or between Py-Im hairpin motifs for tandem hairpin. It is demonstrated herein that AO also functions as a linker element that can extend to 2-bp in hairpin motifs. Notably, although the AO-containing unit can fail to bind the expected sequence, polyamide 4, which has two AO units facing each other in a hairpin form, successfully showed the expected motif and a KD value of 16nM was recorded. Polyamide 5, containing a β-alanine-β-alanine unit instead of the AO of polyamide 2, was synthesized for comparison. The aqueous solubilities and nuclear localization of three of the polyamides were also examined. The results suggest the possibility of applying the AO unit in the core of Py-Im polyamide compounds.

Efficient Synthesis of Peptide and Protein Functionalized Pyrrole-Imidazole Polyamides Using Native Chemical Ligation

The advancement of DNA-based bionanotechnology requires efficient strategies to functionalize DNA nanostructures in a specific manner with other biomolecules, most importantly peptides and proteins. Common DNA-functionalization methods rely on laborious and covalent conjugation between DNA and proteins or peptides. Pyrrole-imidazole (Py-Im) polyamides, based on natural minor groove DNA-binding small molecules, can bind to DNA in a sequence specific fashion. In this study, we explore the use of Py-Im polyamides for addressing proteins and peptides to DNA in a sequence specific and non-covalent manner. A generic synthetic approach based on native chemical ligation was established that allows efficient conjugation of both peptides and recombinant proteins to Py-Im polyamides. The effect of Py-Im polyamide conjugation on DNA binding was investigated by Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR). Although the synthesis of different protein-Py-Im-polyamide conjugates was successful, attenuation of DNA affinity was observed, in particular for the protein-Py-Im-polyamide conjugates. The practical use of protein-Py-Im-polyamide conjugates for addressing DNA structures in an orthogonal but non-covalent manner, therefore, remains to be established.

Synthesis, anti-mycobacterial activity and DNA sequence-selectivity of a library of biaryl-motifs containing polyamides

The alarming rise of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) strains, compel the development of new molecules with novel modes of action to control this world health emergency. Distamycin analogues containing N-terminal biaryl-motifs 2(1-5)(1-7) were synthesised using a solution-phase approach and evaluated for their anti-mycobacterial activity and DNA-sequence selectivity. Thiophene dimer motif-containing polyamide 2(2,6) exhibited 10-fold higher inhibitory activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis compared to distamycin and library member 2(5,7) showed high binding affinity for the 5'-ACATAT-3' sequence.

Identification of a novel E-box binding pyrrole-imidazole polyamide inhibiting MYC-driven cell proliferation

The MYC transcription factor plays a crucial role in the regulation of cell cycle progression, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and cellular transformation. Due to its oncogenic activities and overexpression in a majority of human cancers, it is an interesting target for novel drug therapies. MYC binding to the E-box (5'-CACGTGT-3') sequence at gene promoters contributes to more than 4000 MYC-dependent transcripts. Owing to its importance in MYC regulation, we designed a novel sequence-specific DNA-binding pyrrole-imidazole (PI) polyamide, Myc-5, that recognizes the E-box consensus sequence. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the Myc-5 binding sequence appeared in 5'- MYC binding E-box sequences at the eIF4G1, CCND1, and CDK4 gene promoters. Furthermore, ChIP coupled with detection by quantitative PCR indicated that Myc-5 has the ability to inhibit MYC binding at the target gene promoters and thus cause downregulation at the mRNA level and protein expression of its target genes in human Burkitt's lymphoma model cell line, P493.6, carrying an inducible MYC repression system and the K562 (human chronic myelogenous leukemia) cell line. Single i.v. injection of Myc-5 at 7.5 mg/kg dose caused significant tumor growth inhibition in a MYC-dependent tumor xenograft model without evidence of toxicity. We report here a compelling rationale for the identification of a PI polyamide that inhibits a part of E-box-mediated MYC downstream gene expression and is a model for showing that phenotype-associated MYC downstream gene targets consequently inhibit MYC-dependent tumor growth.

Tandem trimer pyrrole-imidazole polyamide probes targeting 18 base pairs in human telomere sequences

The novel tandem trimer pyrrole-imidazole polyamide probe targeting 18 bp in telomeric repeats visualized telomeres in human cells selectively.

The binding of molecules to specific DNA sequences is important for imaging genome DNA and for studying gene expression. Increasing the number of base pairs targeted by these molecules would provide greater specificity. N-Methylpyrrole–N-methylimidazole (Py–Im) polyamides are one type of such molecules and can bind to the minor groove of DNA in a sequence-specific manner without causing denaturation of DNA. Our recent work has demonstrated that tandem hairpin Py–Im polyamides conjugated with a fluorescent dye can be synthesized easily and can serve as new probes for studying human telomeres under mild conditions. Herein, to improve their selectivities to telomeres by targeting longer sequences, we designed and synthesized a fluorescent tandem trimer Py–Im polyamide probe, comprising three hairpins and two connecting regions (hinges). The new motif bound to 18 bp dsDNA in human telomeric repeats (TTAGGG)_n, the longest sequence for specific binding reported for Py–Im polyamides. We compared the binding affinities and the abilities to discriminate mismatch, the UV-visible absorption and fluorescence spectra, and telomere staining in human cells between the tandem trimer and a previously developed tandem hairpin. We found that the tandem trimer Py–Im polyamide probe has higher ability to recognize telomeric repeats and stains telomeres in chemically fixed cells with lower background signal.

Identification and characterisation of a G-quadruplex forming sequence in the promoter region of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2)

The transcription factor nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) regulates multiple antioxidants, Phase II detoxification enzymes and other cytoprotective enzymes in cells. Activation of Nrf2 is recognised as being of potential therapeutic benefit in inflammatory-diseases whereas more recently, it has become clear that the inhibition of Nrf2 may have benefit in the alleviation of resistance in some tumour types. A potential G-quadruplex forming sequence was identified in the promoter region of Nrf2, close to a number of putative transcription factor binding sites. Characterisation of the sequence 5'-d[GGGAAGGGAGCAAGGGCGGGAGGG]-3' using CD spectroscopy, imino proton NMR resonances and UV melting experiments demonstrated the formation of a parallel intramolecular G-quadruplex in the presence of K(+) ions. Incubation with 9-aminoacridine ligands induced a switch from antiparallel to parallel forms. The presence of a G-quadruplex forming sequence in the promoter region of Nrf2 suggests an approach to targeting the production of the protein through stabilisation of the structure, thereby avoiding resistance to antitumour drugs.

Evaluation of DNA Binding, Cleavage, and Cytotoxic Activity of Cu(II), Co(II), and Ni(II) Schiff Base Complexes of 1-Phenylindoline-2,3-dione with Isonicotinohydrazide

One new series of Cu(II), Co(II), and Ni(II) Schiff base complexes was prepared through the condensation reaction between 1-phenylindoline-2,3-dione with isonicotinohydrazide followed by metalation, respectively. The Schiff base ligand(L), (E)-N'-(2-oxo-1-phenylindolin-3-lidene)isonicotinohydrazide, and its complexes were found soluble in DMF and DMSO solvents and characterized by using the modern analytical and spectral techniques such as elemental analysis, conductivity, magnetic moments, IR, NMR, UV-visible, Mass, CV, and EPR. The elemental analysis data of ligand and their complexes were well agreed with their calculated values in which metal and ligand stoichiometry ratio 1 : 2 was noted. Molar conductance values indicated that all the complexes were found to be nonelectrolytes. All the complexes showed octahedral geometry around the central metal ions. Herein, we better characterized DNA binding with the complexes by UV-visible and CD spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry techniques. The DNA cleavage experiments were carried out by Agarose gel electrophoresis method and the cytotoxicity experiments by MTT assay method. Based on the DNA binding, cleavage, and cytotoxicity studies, Cu and Ni complexes were found to be good anticancer agents against AGS-human gastric cancer cell line.

Fluorescent probes for nucleic Acid visualization in fixed and live cells

This review analyses the literature concerning non-fluorescent and fluorescent probes for nucleic acid imaging in fixed and living cells from the point of view of their suitability for imaging intracellular native RNA and DNA. Attention is mainly paid to fluorescent probes for fluorescence microscopy imaging. Requirements for the target-binding part and the fluorophore making up the probe are formulated. In the case of native double-stranded DNA, structure-specific and sequence-specific probes are discussed. Among the latest, three classes of dsDNA-targeting molecules are described: (i) sequence-specific peptides and proteins; (ii) triplex-forming oligonucleotides and (iii) polyamide oligo(N-methylpyrrole/N-methylimidazole) minor groove binders. Polyamides seem to be the most promising targeting agents for fluorescent probe design, however, some technical problems remain to be solved, such as the relatively low sequence specificity and the high background fluorescence inside the cells. Several examples of fluorescent probe applications for DNA imaging in fixed and living cells are cited. In the case of intracellular RNA, only modified oligonucleotides can provide such sequence-specific imaging. Several approaches for designing fluorescent probes are considered: linear fluorescent probes based on modified oligonucleotide analogs, molecular beacons, binary fluorescent probes and template-directed reactions with fluorescence probe formation, FRET donor-acceptor pairs, pyrene excimers, aptamers and others. The suitability of all these methods for living cell applications is discussed.

Affinity and kinetic modulation of polyamide-DNA interactions by N-modification of the heterocycles

Synthetic N-methyl imidazole and N-pyrrole containing polyamides (PAs) that can form "stacked" dimers can be programmed to target and bind to specific DNA sequences and control gene expression. To accomplish this goal, the development of PAs with lower molecular mass which allows for the molecules to rapidly penetrate cells and localize in the nucleus, along with increased water solubility, while maintaining DNA binding sequence specificity and high binding affinity is key. To meet these challenges, six novel f-ImPy*Im PA derivatives that contain different orthogonally positioned moieties were designed to target 5'-ACGCGT-3'. The synthesis and biophysical characterization of six f-ImPy*Im were determined by CD, ΔTM, DNase I footprinting, SPR, and ITC studies, and were compared with those of their parent compound, f-ImPyIm. The results gave evidence for the minor groove binding and selectivity of PAs 1 and 6 for the cognate sequence 5'-ACGCGT-3', and with strong affinity, Keq = 2.8 × 10(8) M(-1) and Keq = 6.2 × 10(7) M(-1), respectively. The six novel PAs presented in this study demonstrated increased water solubility, while maintaining low molecular mass, sequence specificity, and binding affinity, addressing key issues in therapeutic development.

Binding to the DNA minor groove by heterocyclic dications: from AT-specific monomers to GC recognition with dimers

Compounds that bind in the DNA minor groove have provided critical information on DNA molecular recognition, have found extensive uses in biotechnology, and are providing clinically useful drugs against diseases as diverse as cancer and sleeping sickness. This review focuses on the development of clinically useful heterocyclic diamidine minor groove binders. These compounds have shown us that the classical model for minor groove binding in AT DNA sequences must be expanded in several ways: compounds with nonstandard shapes can bind strongly to the groove, water can be directly incorporated into the minor groove complex in an interfacial interaction, and the compounds can form cooperative stacked dimers to recognize GC and mixed AT/GC base pair sequences.

Programmable DNA-binding small molecules

Aberrant gene expression is responsible for a myriad of human diseases from infectious diseases to cancer. Precise regulation of these genes via specific interactions with the DNA double helix could pave the way for novel therapeutics. Pyrrole-imidazole polyamides are small molecules capable of binding to pre-determined DNA sequences up to 16 base pairs with affinity and specificity comparable to natural transcription factors. In the three decades since their development, great strides have been made relating to synthetic accessibility and improved sequence specificity and binding affinity. This perspective presents a brief history of early seminal developments in the field and highlights recent reports of the utility of polyamides as both genetic modulators and molecular probes.

Promoter scanning of the human COX-2 gene with 8-ring polyamides: unexpected weakening of polyamide-DNA binding and selectivity by replacing an internal N-Me-pyrrole with β-alanine

Rules for polyamide-DNA recognition have proved invaluable for the design of sequence-selective DNA binding agents in cell-free systems. However, these rules are not fully transferrable to predicting activity in cells, tissues or animals, and additional refinements to our understanding of DNA recognition would help biomedical studies. Similar complexities are encountered when using internal β-alanines as polyamide building blocks in place of N-methylpyrrole; β-alanines were introduced in polyamide designs to maintain good hydrogen bonding registry with the target DNA, especially for long polyamides or those with several GC bp (P.B. Dervan, A.R. Urbach, Essays Contemp. Chem. (2001) 327-339). Thus, to clarify important subtleties of molecular recognition, we studied the effects of replacing a single pyrrole with β-alanine in 8-ring polyamides designed against the Ets-1 transcription factor. Replacement of a single internal N-methylpyrrole with β-alanine to generate a β/Im pairing in two 8-ring polyamides causes a decrease in DNA binding affinity by two orders of magnitude and decreases DNA binding selectivity, contrary to expectations based on the literature. Measurements were made by fluorescence spectroscopy, quantitative DNA footprinting and surface plasmon resonance, with these vastly different techniques showing excellent agreement. Furthermore, results were validated for a range of DNA substrates from small hairpins to long dsDNA sequences. Docking studies helped show that β-alanine does not make efficient hydrophobic contacts with the rest of the polyamide or nearby DNA, in contrast to pyrrole. These results help refine design principles and expectations for polyamide-DNA recognition.

Fluorescent intercalator displacement replacement (FIDR) assay: determination of relative thermodynamic and kinetic parameters in triplex formation--a case study using triplex-forming LNAs

Triplex forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) are the most commonly used approach for site-specific targeting of double stranded DNA (dsDNA). Important parameters describing triplex formation include equilibrium binding constants (K(eq)) and association/dissociation rate constants (k(on) and k(off)). The 'fluorescent intercalator displacement replacement' (FIDR) assay is introduced herein as an operationally simple approach toward determination of these parameters for triplexes involving TC-motif TFOs. Briefly described, relative rate constants are determined from fluorescence intensity changes upon: (i) TFO-mediated displacement of pre-intercalated and fluorescent ethidium from dsDNA targets (triplex association) and (ii) Watson-Crick complement-mediated displacement of the TFO and replacement with ethidium (triplex dissociation). The assay is used to characterize triplexes between purine-rich dsDNA targets and TC-motif TFOs modified with six different locked nucleic acid (LNA) monomers, i.e. conventional and C5-alkynyl-functionalized LNA and α-L-LNA pyrimidine monomers. All of the studied monomers increase triplex stability by decreasing the triplex dissociation rate. LNA-modified TFOs form more stable triplexes than α-L-LNA-modified counterparts owing to slower triplex dissociation. Triplexes modified with C5-(3-aminopropyn-1-yl)-LNA-U monomer Z are particularly stable. The study demonstrates that three affinity-enhancing features can be combined into one high-affinity TFO monomer: conformational restriction of the sugar ring, expansion of the pyrimidine π-stacking surface and introduction of an exocyclic amine.

Synthesis of pyrrole-imidazole polyamide seco-1-chloromethyl-5-hydroxy-1,2-dihydro-3h-benz[e]indole conjugates with a vinyl linker recognizing a 7 bp DNA sequence

Convergent synthetic routes for N-methylpyrrole (P) and N-methylimidazole (I) seco-1-chloromethyl-5-hydroxy-1,2-dihydro-3H-benz[e]indole (CBI) conjugates with a vinyl linker were developed. New hairpin polyamide-seco-CBI conjugates, compounds 16-19, were synthesized, and their DNA sequence-specific alkylating activities were evaluated via high-resolution denaturing gel electrophoresis and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) product analysis. The new synthetic route for PI conjugates with a vinyl linker consisted of the introduction of a vinylpyrrole unit (8-11) into the C terminal of a PI polyamide synthesized by (fluorenylmethoxy)carbonyl solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS), followed by liquid-phase coupling with seco-CBI. The yield of the conjugates was significantly improved compared with that of the method reported previously, which allows us to synthesize various substituted conjugates containing a vinyl linker. Conjugates 16-19 were designed to investigate the substituent effect of the vinyl linker, and conjugate 16S was synthesized to evaluate the reactivity between racemic and S enantiomers of the seco-CBI derivative. The results of high-resolution denaturing gel electrophoresis using 208 bp DNA fragments indicated that alkylation by compounds 16 and 17, in which the H of the vinyl linker of compound 16 was replaced with F, occurred predominantly at the A of the 5'-TTTGTCA-3' sequence at nanomolar concentrations. In clear contrast, compounds 18 and 19, which were methyl or Br derivatives of compound 16, did not exhibit any DNA alkylating activity. Moreover, HPLC product analysis using synthetic oligonucleotides demonstrated that alkylation occurred between the N3 of the adenine of the oligomer and the cyclopropane ring of 16S. Density functional calculation of substituted vinylpyrrole seco-CBI units indicated that methyl and Br substituents led to a significantly distorted geometry of the vinyl group with the pyrrole ring compared with H and F derivatives. Molecular modeling studies offered the additional information that steric hindrance reduced the DNA alkylating activity of these derivatives.

A synthetic peptide mimic of λ-Cro shows sequence-specific binding in vitro and in vivo

Development of small synthetic transcription factors is important for future cellular engineering and therapeutics. This article describes the chemical synthesis of α-amino-isobutyric acid (Aib) substituted, conformationally constrained, helical peptide mimics of Cro protein from bacteriophage λ that encompasses the DNA recognition elements. The Aib substituted constrained helical peptide monomer shows a moderately reduced dissociation constant compared to the corresponding unsubstituted wild type peptide. A suitably cross-linked dimeric version of the peptide, mimicking the dimeric protein, recapitulates some of the important features of Cro. It binds to the operator site O(R)3, a high affinity Cro binding site in the λ genome, with good affinity and single base-pair discrimination specificity. A dimeric version of an even shorter peptide mimic spanning only the recognition helix of the helix-turn-helix motif of the Cro protein was created following the same design principles. This dimeric peptide binds to O(R)3 with affinity greater than that of the longer version. Chemical shift perturbation experiments show that the binding mode of this peptide dimer to the cognate operator site sequence is similar to the wild type Cro protein. A Green Fluorescent Protein based reporter assay in vivo reveals that the peptide dimer binds the operator site sequences with considerable selectivity and inhibits gene expression. Peptide mimics designed in this way may provide a future framework for creating effective synthetic transcription factors.

Chromatin structure determines accessibility of a hairpin polyamide-chlorambucil conjugate at histone H4 genes in pancreatic cancer cells

We have shown that a specific pyrrole-imidazole polyamide-DNA alkylator (chlorambucil) conjugate, 1R-Chl, alters the growth characteristics of various cancer cell lines in culture, and causes these cells to arrest in the G2/M stage of the cell cycle, without apparent cytotoxicity. This molecule has also shown efficacy in several mouse xenograft models, preventing tumor growth. Previous microarray studies have suggested that members of the histone H4 gene family, H4c and H4j/k, are the primary targets of this molecule, leading to reduced histone mRNA synthesis and growth arrest in cancer cells. In the present study, we examine the effects of 1R-Chl on transcription of other members of the H4 gene family, with the result that mRNA transcription of most genomic copies of H4 are down-regulated by 1R-Chl in a human pancreatic cancer cell line (MIA PaCa-2), but not in a cell line of non-cancerous origin (HEK293 cells). The basis for this differential effect is likely an open chromatin conformation within the H4 genes in cancer cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments show increased histone acetylation on the histone H4 genes in cancer cells, compared to HEK293 cells, explaining the differential activity of this molecule in cancer versus non-cancer cells.

Structure-based design of a potent artificial transactivation domain based on p53

Malfunctions in transcriptional regulation are associated with a number of critical human diseases. As a result, there is considerable interest in designing artificial transcription activators (ATAs) that specifically control genes linked to human diseases. Like native transcriptional activator proteins, an ATA must minimally contain a DNA-binding domain (DBD) and a transactivation domain (TAD) and, although there are several reliable methods for designing artificial DBDs, designing artificial TADs has proven difficult. In this manuscript, we present a structure-based strategy for designing short peptides containing natural amino acids that function as artificial TADs. Using a segment of the TAD of p53 as the scaffolding, modifications are introduced to increase the helical propensity of the peptides. The most active artificial TAD, termed E-Cap-(LL), is a 13-mer peptide that contains four key residues from p53, an N-capping motif and a dileucine hydrophobic bridge. In vitro analysis demonstrates that E-Cap-(LL) interacts with several known p53 target proteins, while in vivo studies in a yeast model system show that it is a 20-fold more potent transcriptional activator than the native p53-13 peptide. These results demonstrate that structure-based design represents a promising approach for developing artificial TADs that can be combined with artificial DBDs to create potent and specific ATAs.

Inhibition of heat shock transcription factor binding by a linear polyamide binding in an unusual 1:1 mode

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are known to protect cells from heat, oxidative stress, and the cytotoxic effects of drugs, and thus can enhance cancer cell survival. As a result, HSPs are a newly emerging class of protein targets for chemotherapy. Among the various HSPs, the HSP70 family is the most highly conserved and prevalent. Herein we describe the development of a β-alanine rich linear polyamide that binds the GGA heat shock elements (HSEs) 3 and 4 in the HSP70 promoter in an unusual 1:1 mode and inhibits heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) binding in vitro.