Cancer nanoimmunotherapy using advanced pharmaceutical nanotechnology

Nanoparticle-Mediated Immunotherapy in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype with the worst prognosis and highest recurrence rates. The treatment choices are limited due to the scarcity of endocrine and HER2 targets, except for chemotherapy. However, the side effects of chemotherapy restrict its long-term usage. Immunotherapy shows potential as a promising therapeutic strategy, such as inducing immunogenic cell death, immune checkpoint therapy, and immune adjuvant therapy. Nanotechnology offers unique advantages in the field of immunotherapy, such as improved delivery and targeted release of immunotherapeutic agents and enhanced bioavailability of immunomodulators. As well as the potential for combination therapy synergistically enhanced by nanocarriers. Nanoparticles-based combined application of multiple immunotherapies is designed to take the tactics of enhancing immunogenicity and reversing immunosuppression. Moreover, the increasing abundance of biomedical materials holds more promise for the development of this field. This review summarizes the advances in the field of nanoparticle-mediated immunotherapy in terms of both immune strategies for treatment and the development of biomaterials and presents challenges and hopes for the future.

Multicomponent carrier-free nanodrugs for cancer treatment

Nanocarriers can be used to deliver insoluble anticancer drugs to optimize therapeutic efficacy. However, the potential toxicity of nanocarriers cannot be ignored. Carrier-free nanodrugs are emerging safe drug delivery systems, which are composed of multiple components, such as drugs, bioactive molecules and functional ingredients, avoiding the usage of inert carrier materials and offering advantages that include high drug loading, low toxicity, synergistic therapy, versatile design, and easy surface functionalization. Therefore, how to design multicomponent carrier-free nanodrugs is becoming a priority. In this review, the common strategies for rapid construction of multicomponent carrier-free nanodrugs are briefly explored from the perspective of methodology. The properties of organic-organic, organic-inorganic and inorganic-inorganic multiple carrier-free nanosystems are analyzed according to wettability and in-depth understanding is provided. Further advances in the applications of multiple carrier-free nanodrugs are outlined in anticipation of grasping the intrinsic nature for the design and development of carrier-free nanodrugs.

Emerging advances in nanomedicine for breast cancer immunotherapy: opportunities and challenges

Breast cancer is one of the most common causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality in women worldwide. Early diagnosis and an appropriate therapeutic approach for all cancers are climacterics for a favorable prognosis. Targeting the immune system in breast cancer is already a clinical reality with notable successes, specifically with checkpoint blockade antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy. However, there have been inevitable setbacks in the clinical application of cancer immunotherapy, including inadequate immune responses due to insufficient delivery of immunostimulants to immune cells and uncontrolled immune system modulation. Rapid advancements and new evidence have suggested that nanomedicine-based immunotherapy may be a viable option for treating breast cancer.

Death Pathways of Cancer Cells Modulated by Surface Molecule Density on Gold Nanorods

Necrosis induces strong inflammation with undesirable implications in clinics compared with apoptosis. Fortunately, the switch between necrosis and apoptosis could be realized by tailoring the appropriate structural properties of gold nano rods (GNRs) that could precisely modulate cell death pathways. Herein, the intracellular interaction between GNRs and organelles is monitored and it is found that lysosomes dominates necrosis/apoptosis evoking. Then the surface molecule density of GNRs, which is first defined as ρsurf. molecule (Nsurf. molecules /(a × π × Diameter × Length)), mediates lysosome activities as the membrane permeabilization (LMP), the Cathepsin B and D release, the cross-talk between lysosome and different organelles, which selectively evokes apoptosis or necrosis and the production of TNF-α from macrophages. GNRs with small ρsurf. molecule mainly induce apoptosis, while with large ρsurf. molecule they greatly contribute to necrosis. Interestingly, necrosis can be suppressed by GNRs with higher ρsurf. molecule due to the overexpression of key protease caspase 8, which cleaves the RIP1-RIP3 complex and activates caspase 3 followed by necrosis to apoptosis transition. This investigation indicates that the ρsurf. molecule greatly affects the utility of nanomaterials and different structural properties of nanomaterials have different implications in clinics.

Recent advances in breast cancer immunotherapy: The promising impact of nanomedicines

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the prevalent cancers among women. Generally, the treatment of BC is mostly based on several prominent strategies, including chemotherapy, surgery, endocrine therapy, molecular targeted therapy, and radiation. Owing to the growing knowledge about the complexity of BC pathobiology, immunotherapy as a promising treatment modality has substantially improved the patients' care in the clinic. Immunotherapy is used to harness the patient's immune system to recognize and battle devious cancer cells. As a novel therapy approach, this emerging strategy targets the key molecular entities of tumor tissue. To achieve maximal therapeutic impacts, the dynamic interplay between cancer and immune cells needs to be fully comprehended. The key molecular machinery of solid tumors can be targeted by nanoscale immunomedicines. While discussing the potential biomarkers involved in the initiation and progression of BC, we aimed to provide comprehensive insights into the immunotherapy and articulate the recent advances in terms of the therapeutic strategies used to control this disease, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, vaccines, chimeric antigen receptor T cells therapy, and nanomedicines.

Trends in Nanomedicines for Cancer Treatment

Background:

Cancer is characterized by abnormal cell growth and considered one of the leading causes of death around the world. Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology has been extensively studied for the optimization of cancer treatment.

Objective:

Comprehend the panorama of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology in cancer treatment, through a survey about nanomedicines applied in clinical studies, approved for use and patented.

Methods:

Acknowledged products under clinical study and nanomedicines commercialized found in scientific articles through research on the following databases: Pubmed, Science Direct, Scielo and Lilacs. Derwent tool was used for patent research.

Results:

Nanomedicines based on nanoparticles, polymer micelles, liposomes, dendrimers and nanoemulsions were studied, along with cancer therapies such as Photodynamic Therapy, Infrared Phototherapy Hyperthermia, Magnetic Hyperthermia, Radiotherapy, Gene Therapy and Nanoimmunotherapy. Great advancement has been observed over nanotechnology applied to cancer treatment, mainly for nanoparticles and liposomes.

Conclusion:

The combination of drugs in nanosystems helps to increase efficacy and decrease toxicity. Based on the results encountered, nanoparticles and liposomes were the most commonly used nanocarriers for drug encapsulation. In addition, although few nanomedicines are commercially available, this specific research field is continuously growing.

Exosomes and Nanoengineering: A Match Made for Precision Therapeutics

Targeted exosomal delivery systems for precision nanomedicine attract wide interest across areas of molecular cell biology, pharmaceutical sciences, and nanoengineering. Exosomes are naturally derived 50-150 nm nanovesicles that play important roles in cell-to-cell and/or cell-to-tissue communications and cross-species communication. Exosomes are also a promising class of novel drug delivery vehicles owing to their ability to shield their payload from chemical and enzymatic degradations as well as to evade recognition by and subsequent removal by the immune system. Combined with a new class of affinity ligands known as aptamers or chemical antibodies, molecularly targeted exosomes are poised to become the next generation of smartly engineered nanovesicles for precision medicine. Here, recent advances in targeted exosomal delivery systems engineered by aptamer for future strategies to promote human health using this class of human-derived nanovesicles are summarized.

Recent development and applications of nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy, which utilizes the patient’s own immune system to fight against cancer, further results in durable antitumor responses and reduces metastasis and recurrence, has become one of the most effective and important cancer therapies along with surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Nanomaterials with the advantages of large specific surface, delivery function, and controllable surface chemistry are used to deliver antigens or adjuvants, or both, help to boost immune responses with the imaging function or just act as adjuvants themselves and modulate tumor microenvironment (TME). In this review, recent development and applications of nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy including delivery systems based on nanomaterials, uniting imaging, self-adjuvants, targeting functions, artificial antigen presenting cells, and TME modulation are focused and discussed.

Cancer nanomedicine: mechanisms, obstacles and strategies

Targeting nanoparticles to cancers for improved therapeutic efficacy and decreased side effects remains a popular concept in the past decades. Although the enhanced permeability and retention effect serves as a key rationale for all the currently commercialized nanoformulations, it does not enable uniform delivery of nanoparticles to all tumorous regions in all patients with sufficient quantities. Also, the increase in overall survival is often modest. Many factors may influence the delivering process of nanoparticles, which must be taken into consideration for the promise of nanomedicine in patients to be realized. Herein, we review the mechanisms and influencing factors during the delivery of cancer therapeutics and summarize current strategies that have been developed for the fabrication of smart drug delivery systems.

The crucial roles of inflammatory mediators in inflammation: A review

The inflammatory response is a crucial aspect of the tissues' responses to deleterious inflammogens. This complex response involves leukocytes cells such as macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphocytes, also known as inflammatory cells. In response to the inflammatory process, these cells release specialized substances which include vasoactive amines and peptides, eicosanoids, proinflammatory cytokines, and acute-phase proteins, which mediate the inflammatory process by preventing further tissue damage and ultimately resulting in healing and restoration of tissue function. This review discusses the role of the inflammatory cells as well as their by-products in the mediation of inflammatory process. A brief insight into the role of natural anti-inflammatory agents is also discussed. The significance of this study is to explore further and understand the potential mechanism of inflammatory processes to take full advantage of vast and advanced anti-inflammatory therapies. This review aimed to reemphasize the importance on the knowledge of inflammatory processes with the addition of newest and current issues pertaining to this phenomenon.

Therapeutic targeting in nanomedicine: the future lies in recombinant antibodies

The unique chemical and functional properties of nanoparticles can be harnessed for the delivery of large quantities of various therapeutic biomolecules. Active targeting of nanoparticles by conjugating ligands that bind to target cells strongly facilitates accumulation, internalization into target cells and longer retention at the target site, with consequent enhanced therapeutic effects. Recombinant antibodies with high selectivity and availability for a vast range of targets will dominate the future. In this review, we systematically outline the tremendous progress in the conjugation of antibodies to nanoparticles and the clear advantages that recombinant antibodies offer in the therapeutic targeting of nanoparticles. The demonstrated flexibility of recombinant antibody coupling to nanoparticles highlights the bright future of this technology for modern therapeutic nanomedicine.

Lysosome-dependent necrosis specifically evoked in cancer cells by gold nanorods

Aim: This article aims to explain the necrosis mechanisms of cancer cells specifically induced by gold nanorods (GNRs). Methods: The intracellular route and location of GNRs, the interaction between GNRs and lysosome, lysosome damage, cathepsin B release, necrosis complex formation, receptor-interacting protein 1 and TNF-α expression were systematically investigated. Results: The GNRs with serum corona were internalized quickly by cancer cells and finally taken up by lysosomes. The GNRs damaged the lysosomal membrane, resulting in the leakage of cathepsin B, which promoted the activation of receptor-interacting protein 1 and necrosomes formation. Necrotic cells and their debris or ill cellular contents were engulfed by macrophages resulting in high-level release of TNF-α, which further confirmed necrosis. Conclusion: GNRs can specifically trigger lysosome-dependent necrosis in cancer cells.

Successful in vivo hyperthermal therapy toward breast cancer by Chinese medicine shikonin-loaded thermosensitive micelle

The Chinese traditional medicine Shikonin is an ideal drug due to its multiple targets to tumor cells. But in clinics, improving its aqueous solubility and tumor accumulation is still a challenge. Herein, a copolymer with tunable poly(N-isopropylacrymaide) and polylactic acid block lengths is designed, synthesized, and characterized in nuclear magnetic resonance. The corresponding thermosensitive nanomicelle (TN) with well-defined core-shell structure is then assembled in an aqueous solution. For promoting the therapeutic index, the physical-chemistry properties of TNs including narrow size, low critical micellar concentration, high serum stability, tunable volume phase transition temperature (VPTT), high drug-loading capacity, and temperature-controlled drug release are systematically investigated and regulated through the fine self-assembly. The shikonin is then entrapped in a degradable inner core resulting in a shikonin-loaded thermosensitive nanomicelle (STN) with a VPTT of ~40°C. Compared with small-molecular shikonin, the in vitro cellular internalization and cytotoxicity of STN against breast cancer cells (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7) are obviously enhanced. In addition, the therapeutic effect is further enhanced by the programmed cell death (PCD) specifically evoked by shikonin. Interestingly, both the proliferation inhibition and PCD are synergistically promoted as T > VPTT, namely the temperature-regulated passive targeting. Consequently, as intravenous injection is administered to the BALB/c nude mice bearing breast cancer, the intratumor accumulation of STNs is significantly increased as T > VPTT, which is regulated by the in-house developed heating device. The in vivo antitumor assays against breast cancer further confirm the synergistically enhanced therapeutic efficiency. The findings of this study indicate that STN is a potential effective nanoformulation in clinical cancer therapy.

Nanotechnology-Based Cancer Vaccine

Nanotechnology offers invaluable tools to tailor cancer vaccines in order to generate robust antitumor immune response. Among the types of vehicles for cancer vaccines, nanoparticles (NPs) are easier to produce with better scalability. Several nanostructures have been discussed in literature as potential delivery systems for cancer antigens. Here, we focus on polymeric NPs fabricated from poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA). We describe how to prepare and characterize such NPs loaded with ovalbumin (OVA) antigen and immune adjuvant monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA). We further describe methods to test the immune efficacy of such NPs in vitro and in vivo.

Nanomaterial-based cancer immunotherapy

This review focuses on summarizing the existing work about nanomaterial-based cancer immunotherapy in detail.

Lysosome–mitochondria-mediated apoptosis specifically evoked in cancer cells induced by gold nanorods

Aim: The main aim of this article is to explain the apoptosis mechanisms of cancer cells specifically triggered by gold nanorods (GNRs). Materials & methods: GNRs were synthesized and optimized, the lysosome damage, cathepsin D, mitochondrial membrane potential, caspase-9, cleaved caspase-9, caspase-3 and intracellular GNRs location related to apoptosis was systematically evaluated. Results: GNRs specifically induce cancer cell apoptosis while posing a negligible impact on normal cells. After incubation with GNRs, the lysosomal permeability in cancer cells as indicated by cathepsin D was markedly higher than that in normal cells and resulted in an obvious decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential. Western blot analysis further confirmed that apoptosis occurred through caspase-9 and caspase-3 activation following mitochondrial damage. Transmission electron microscope images showed that GNRs did not appear in most of the damaged mitochondria but mainly accumulated in lysosomes. Conclusion: These findings indicated that GNR-induced apoptosis specifically in cancer cells by affecting lysosomes and mitochondria.

Synergistic anti-tumor therapy by a comb-like multifunctional antibody nanoarray with exceptionally potent activity

Simultaneously blocking multiple mediators offers new hope for the treatment of complex diseases. However, the curative potential of current combination therapy by chronological administration of separate monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) or multi-specific mAbs is still moderate due to inconvenient manipulation, low cooperative effectors, poor pharmacokinetics and insufficient tumor accumulation. Here, we describe a facile strategy that arms distinct mAbs with cooperative effectors onto a long chain to form a multicomponent comb-like nano mAb. Unlike dissociative parental mAbs, the multifunctional mAb nanoarray (PL-RB) constructed from type I/II anti-CD20 mAbs shows good pharmacokinetics. This PL-RB simultaneously targets distinct epitopes on a single antigen (Ag) and neighboring Ags on different lymphocytes. This unique intra- and intercellular Ag cross-linking endows the multifunctional mAb nanoarray with potent apoptosis activity. The exceptional apoptosis, complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) that are synchronously evoked by the nano PL-RB are further synergistically promoted via enhanced permeability and retention (EPR), which resulted in high intratumor accumulation and excellent anti-lymphoma efficiency.

A redox-sensitive micelle-like nanoparticle self-assembled from amphiphilic adriamycin-human serum albumin conjugates for tumor targeted therapy

The application of chemotherapeutic drug adriamycin (ADR) in cancer therapy is limited by its side effects like high toxicity and insolubility. Nanomedicine offers new hope for overcoming the shortcomings. But how to increase in vivo stability and to control intracellular drug release is a key issue for nano-based formulations. Herein, the hydrophobic ADR was successfully linked to the biocompatible human serum albumin (HSA) by disulfide bond 3-(2-pyridyldithio) propionyl hydrazide (PDPH), resulting in amphiphilic HSA-ADR. The novel ADR-HSA micellar NPs which were thus assembled exhibited a well-defined stable core shell structure with glutathione (GSH) sensitive linkers. The stable PDPH linkers at extracellular level were broken by GSH at intracellular level with a controlled ADR release profile. The in vitro cytotoxicity against gastric cancer cells (NCI-N87) was obviously enhanced by such redox-sensitive ADR-HSA NPs. Additionally, as observed by IVIS Lumina II Imaging System (Xenogen), the intratumor accumulation of ADR-HSA NPs was much higher than that of HSA/ADR NPs due to its high stability. Consequently, the in vivo tumor inhibition was significantly promoted after intravenous administration to the Balb/c nude mice bearing gastric tumors. These in vitro/vivo results indicated that disulfide-bond-containing ADR-HSA NPs were an effective nanodrug delivery system for cancer therapy.