The Strelau Temperament Inventory‐revised (STI‐R): Theoretical considerations and scale development

The development of a revised Strelau Temperament Inventory (STI‐R) is reported. It is assumed that the STI‐R provides a measure of the basic central nervous system (CNS) properties (strength of excitation, strength of inhibition, and mobility of the CNS) as understood by Pavlov. On the basis of a series of studies, the development of the final forms of the revised STI has undergone several steps. The following forms have been elaborated: (1) a 252‐item pilot form of the STI‐R; (2) a 166‐item STI‐R with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answer format; (3) a short form (84 items) of the STI‐R (STI‐RS) with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answer format; (4) a 166‐item STI‐R with a 4‐point Likert scale; and (5) an 84‐item STI‐RS with a 4‐point rating scale. The psychometric characteristics of the consecutive versions of the revised STI improved from step to step, and in general these characteristics are judged as being satisfactory. Especially recommended by the authors are versions (4) and (5), which have, among other things, the highest reliability scores. They are regarded as the final forms of the STI‐R and STI‐RS.

The serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism moderates the continuity of behavioral inhibition in early childhood

Persistently elevated behavioral inhibition (BI) in children is a marker of vulnerability to psychopathology. However, little research has considered the joint influences of caregiver and child factors that may moderate the continuity of BI in early childhood, particularly genetic variants that may serve as markers of biological plasticity, such as the serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR). We explored this issue in 371 preschoolers and their caregivers, examining whether parent characteristics (i.e., overinvolvement or anxiety disorder) and child 5-HTTLPR influenced the continuity of BI between ages 3 and 5. Measures were observational ratings of child BI, observational and questionnaire measures of parenting, and parent interviews for anxiety disorder history, and children were genotyped for the 5-HTTLPR. Parent factors did not moderate the association between age 3 and age 5 BI; however, child BI at age 3 interacted with children's 5-HTTLPR variants to predict age 5 BI, such that children with at least one copy of the short allele exhibited less continuity of BI over time relative to children without this putative plasticity variant. Findings are consistent with previous work indicating the 5-HTTLPR short variant increases plasticity to contextual influences, thereby serving to decrease the continuity of BI in early childhood.

Assessing Intellectual and Affective Development before Age Three: A Perspective on Changing Practices

Developmental assessment is an ongoing process of systematic observation and analysis, the purpose of which is to understand the child's competencies and resources and the caregiving and learning environments most likely to assist the child in making the best use of his or her developmental potential. for many years young children have been assessed with normative instruments that focus primarily on evaluating their intellectual development. Many myths surround the use of these instruments with very young children, including the following: intelligence can be defined and measured with confidence;\ intelligence test data have diagnostic relevance; early intelligence tests have predictive value; such tests are useful for assessing young children with special needs; practitioners value and use these tests in their clinical practice; and IQ tests fulfill the legal purposes and intent of public laws. Each of these statements represents a misstatement of fact, and none of them has a strong evidentiary basis.

In place of the narrow classificatory function served by such tests, a variety of other approaches to assessing intellectual and affective development in the first three years of life are described. These instruments are consistent with a group of principles of responsive, developmentally oriented assessment that include recognizing the interdependence of development, understanding the importance of using multiple sources and multiple components in assessment, providing a meaningful sequence for assessment, respecting and evaluating child–caregiver relationships, basing assessments on a framework of typical development, emphasizing the organizational and functional capabilities of the child, focusing on the child's current and emerging competencies and strengths, viewing assessment as a process of collaboration and the beginning of an intervention, and understanding that assessment and intervention are two elements of a larger whole. Assessments that are defined in terms of these principles assist us in meeting our most important goal: assisting all children to achieve their potential.

Measurement of Temperament in One to Three Year Old Children

Temperament in the toddler age group has received relatively little attention in the developmental literature, and there is a clear need for well-established, culturally-appropriate measurement instruments. To this end, the Toddler Temperament Scale (TTS) of Fullard, McDevitt and Carey (1984) was administered to a sample of 397, 1 to 3 year old Australian children. Older and younger toddlers showed developmentally related differences on a number of dimensions, emphasising the need for them to be regarded as separate groups in temperament research. Relationships between temperament classification and maternal and day-caretakers' reports of behaviour problems provided some evidence of concurrent validity of the measures. While some dimensions of the TTS were less than satisfactory psychometrically, the content of the questionnaire seemed suitable for Australian use; Australian normative data is provided for the two age groups.

Reassessing the Dimensions of Temperamental Individuality Across the Life Span:The Revised Dimensions of Temperament Survey (DOTS-R)

The principal objective of this research was to identify age-continuous features of temperament, across an age span from early childhood to late adolescence/early adulthood through the construction of a new temperament measure, the Revised Dimensions of Temperament Survey (DOTS-R). Limitations of an extant temperament measure, the Dimensions of Temperament Survey (DOTS), were considered in the present scale construction research. A temperament questionnaire composed of an initial pool of 106 items was administered to three different samples-preschoolers, elementary school children, and late adolescents/early adults. The analyses included interrater agreement for content validity of items, item-total scale analyses, factor analyses, and the determination of internal consistency estimates of temperament dimensions for each sample. A nine factor model of temperament emerged for the preschool and elementary school samples, whereas a ten factor model emerged for the late adolescent/early adult sample. Supporting the factorial validity of the DOTS-R across the three age samples, results indicated high congruity for pairwise comparisons of factor loading patterns across samples, and moderate to high levels of internal consistency for each of the temperament dimensions across samples. Data supportive of the predictive validity of the DOTS-R for early and late adolescents are noted as well.

Scheme for Observing Activity Level: Reliability and Convergent Validity

The Scheme for Observing Activity Level (SOAL) is described. Nine mutually exclusive combinations of posture and movement intensity are defined for use in observational studies. Duration of time spent in each category is multiplied by energy expenditure estimates drawn from the empirical literature, and the products are summed to create the SOAL score. Interobserver reliability for the SOAL is evaluated in three studies with preschool children and is found to range from .90 to .94. SOAL scores also converged, as hypothesized, with observer rankings, a mechanical motion recorder measure, and teacher rankings. It is concluded that the SOAL is practical and reliable for use in observational studies that utilize real-time data collection.

Relationship of Temperament Characteristics to the Academic Achievement of First-Grade Children

Relationships between teacher ratings of six “temperament” characteristics and four measures of achievement for 104 first-grade children were analyzed in a short-interval prediction study. Activity level, adaptability, approach or withdrawal, distractibility, and persistence were found to be significant predictors of reading and mathematics grades and reading performance on a standardized test with the effects of IQ controlled. Further, multiple regression analysis demonstrated that persistence and adaptability made significant and sizable contributions to the prediction of achievement over that made by IQ.

Temperament in Australian, American, Chinese, and Greek Infants

Ratings of temperament in 4-to 8-month-old infants were compared across four cultural groups (American, Chinese, Australian, and Greek-Australian)using the revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Significant differences were found on all dimensions, with American and Australian infants being most alike and Greek and Chinese being very different from these two groups Generally, positive or "easy" temperament profiles characterized American and Australian infants while a "difficult" profile emerged for Greek-Australian infants. Biological and cultural explanations were considered in interpretations of the obtained differences. It is concluded that there are important cultural effects on temperament ratings but that such effects are effects are complex and require more careful investigation.

Comparing Activity Measurements and Ratings

The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship between rated and measured activity in children. Activity level is a theoretical component of temperament, and empirical studies of child behavior disorder consistently reveal hyperactivity as a behavior disorder. This article demonstrates that the Conners Teacher Rating Scale, Motor Excess subscale of the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist, and the Nervous-Overactive subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist-Teacher Rating Form are significantly and substantially intercorrelated, thereby supporting their construct validity. Additional large significant correlations between all three ratings and measured activity (steps per hour) further support the concurrent validity of activity ratings by teachers. However, important discrepancies exist between rated and measured activity for a substantial proportion of the boys. This finding strongly suggests that a second opinion be obtained through a 2-week behavioral sample using an activity measuring instrument, especially when concemn exists over excessive activity prior to reaching diagnostic and/or treatment conclusions.

Cross-Cultural Comparability of Temperament among Japanese and American Early- and Late-Adolescents

The cross-cultural generalizability of temperament, as measured by the Revised Dimensions of Temperament Survey (DOTS-R) (Windle & Lerner, 1986), was investigated by studying metric equivalent relations between samples of Japanese and American early adolescents, and between samples of Japanese and American late adolescents. Similar to findings for the American adolescent samples, nine-and ten-factor models were found to adequately represent the inter-item covariance matrix of the DOTS-R for the Japanese early and late-adolescents, respectively. Metric equivalence between the early-and late-adolescent samples, respectively, was supported via congruence coefficients and restricted (confirmatory), simultaneous group models for each of the separate temperament dimensions. Statistical tests of differences in factor means were conducted and indicated that American early-and late-adolescents rated themselves higher in approach behavior, mood quality (positive affect), and task orientation. The Japanese early adolescents rated themselves higher with respect to features of behavioral rhythmicity. No statistically significant differences were found for almost one-half of the factor mean comparisons. Proposals for future cross-cultural research in adolescent temperament which move beyond measurement equivalence issues were suggested to address issues of similarities and differences between cultural groups with respect to causal linkages. In addition, we suggest the use of additional methods of measurement conjointly with the DOTS-R in order to triangulate on salient temperament constructs.

Latent-Variable Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire

Latent-variable confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the dimensional structure of adolescent temperament from a sample of 436 adolescents. The ninedimensional model proposed by A. Thomas and S. Chess in 1977 was extended by including a bidimensional structure of Mood (including both positive and negative affectivity) and a dimension of Ego Control tapping resiliency and flexibility. All 11 dimensions were statistically reliable and a superiorfit was obtained with a correlated, rather than an orthogonal, model. Results indicated that the factors of Threshold, Intensity, and Distractibility may not be developmentally consistent nor conceptually homogeneous. Moreover, modelfit statistics underscored that a single nomothetic model could not adequately account for the variability underlying the temperamental styles of these adolescents. Separate primary models reflecting temperamental "systems" of Cognitive-Diligence, Sociability/Resilience, and Wgor/Mobility also were tested. Findings suggest that extension of temperament assessment from infancy and childhood to adolescence is developmentally appropriate, although further elucidation of temperamental styles consistent with adult personality is warranted.

Psychometric Strategies of Measures of Temperament: A Methodological Critique

The test construction strategies used in the development of a large number of current questionnaire measures of temperament were reviewed. The review detailed the procedures that various researchers selected to construct their measures, including the specification of the content domain of interest, the method and sequence of item selection and evaluation, and efforts to determine the dimensionality of respective measures. A critique of these temperament measures was then provided, with reference to several central concepts in psychometric theory and multivariate developmental correlational research. The selection by some test constructors of coefficient alpha as the sole criterion for inferring unidimensionality was shown to be insufficient. Differences were discussed regarding the usefulness of the principal components and common factor models to represent multivariate item response data. Conceptual clarity and empirical inter-inventory studies were suggested to assist in the identification of similarity/dissimilarity among temperament constructs proposed by different investigators. A final recommendation was that greater attention be given to cross-validation as a component in the construction process of temperament measures.

Temperament, Environment, and Six-Month Cognitive-Intellectual Development: A Test of the Organismic Specificity Hypothesis

The major question asked in the present study was whether temperamental differences mediated the infants' response to the early environment (organismic specificity). A corollary question involved the nature of the relationship between temperament and cognitive-intellectual development. Subjects were 100 six-month-old infants who were observed in their homes three times over a three-week period. Home observations were coded into social and physical environmental parameters. During this time period infant temperament and level of sensorimotor development were independently assessed. Canonical and univariate analyses revealed the following relationships: (1) Infants classified as temperamentally "easy" were more sensitive to environmental parameters than temperamentally "difficult" babies; when environmental influences were relevant for "difficult" infants, they tended to have a negative impact upon development. (2) Temperamental characteristics associated with difficultness were also associated with an inability to coordinate specific sensorimotor schemes. Implications of the above for our understanding of early environmental action were discussed.

Multimethod Assessment of Infant Temperament: Mother Questionnaire and Mother and Observer Reports evaluated and compared at Five Months using the Infant Temperament Measure

This study of infant temperament had two goals. The first was to develop a design that allowed comparisons of global maternal opinion assessed via questionnaire, maternal report on direct observation, and observer report on direct observation of the same infant temperament behaviours. The second goal was to evaluate a common set of behaviours consensually thought to index temperament from these diverse perspectives. To meet these goals, individual variation, short-term stability, and convergence between mother and observer for a single series of temperament items were examined. On two home visits spaced six days apart, observers recorded infant behaviours during a structured series of vignettes, and mothers reported on those behaviours. Mothers also completed questionnaires corresponding to these assessments before the first and after the second home visit. Infants were five months old. Items were collected in the Infant Temperament Measure. Behavioural items in observational forms of the ITM proved psychometrically adequate; they showed both individual variation and short-term stability. No agreement between mother ratings made before and after the home visits with observer assessments was found, but mother-observer agreement for assessments based on the home visits was significant, if moderate. Mother and observer each showed overall reliability between the two home visits, and mothers showed moderate to high agreement in global ratings across the assessment series.

Difficult Temperament and Behaviour Problems: A Longitudinal Study from 1.5 to 12 Years

Results of a 10-year longitudinal study on the developmental-behavioural significance of infant temperamental difficultness are presented. A cross-time, cross-context methodology was employed using data from over 100 children participating in the Fullerton Longitudinal Study. Difficult temperament was assessed at 1.5 years by mothers; behaviour problems were assessed by parents during the third year and annually from 4-12 and by teachers from 6-11 years. Temperamental difficultness correlated significantly, pervasively, and to moderate magnitudes with parent reports of behaviour problems from 3.25-12 years. Additionally, analyses using clinical cutpoints showed that 1.5-year-olds deemed temperamentally difficult evidenced a greater frequency of elevated scores, specifically, attention problems, aggressive behaviour, and thought problems (parents) and attention and thought problems (teachers). These data provide evidence for the ecological validity of parent reports of temperament and for a temperamental component in the development of childhood behaviour problems.

Early attention and negative emotionality predict later cognitive and behavioural function

Negative emotionality and poor attention may combine or interact as risk factors in development. Negative emotionality is considered a challenge for self-regulation, whereas good attention is a potential means of self-regulation. In the current study, composites of 1- and 2-year maternal ratings of negative emotionality and global ratings of observed attentiveness were predictors for 3.5-year cognitive and behavioural outcome for 75 children. Results of variable-based regression analyses indicated that early negativity and attentiveness predicted IQ and scores on a hyperactivity index; only negativity predicted a global measure of behaviour problems. Results of person-based analyses for groups formed by median splits on negativity and attention suggested that the More Negative/Less Attentive group had significantly poorer outcome than the other three groups combined (those with one or none of the two risk factors). Comparisons of mean differences also suggested a protective effect of greater attentiveness for more negative as opposed to less negative children for all outcomes. The results extend prior work in providing longitudinal data over the first 3 years and including both cognitive and behavioural outcomes.

Personality and Demographic Characteristics of Mothers and their Ratings of Child Difficultness

The relationships between an indicator of child difficultness and a set of maternal and familial factors were examined in three samples: ages 3-12 months; 12-24 months; and 24-36 months. After initial attempts at using a traditional psychometric approach to measuring difficultness had resulted in a methodologically questionable indicator, factor analytical techniques were employed to develop an alternative indicator of difficultness for each sample.

Maternal anxiety was significantly correlated with child difficultness in all three samples. Mother's effectiveness, nervousness, extroversion, and contentment showed the strongest correlations in the age group 12-24 months, and particularly in the male subsample. Familial and demographic factors showed no associations with difficultness in any of the samples.

The similarity between these findings based on a Danish sample and those reported in previous studies involving other nationalities confirms the notion of a reliable, relatively culture-independent influence of personality characteristics of the rater on measures of infant and child difficultness.

Assessment of the Validity of Easy and Difficult Temperament through Observed Mother-Child Behaviours

Forty mothers and their 7-year-old children were video-taped while interacting during the completion of five structured tasks. Half of the children had been rated as having a difficult temperament by their mothers on the Thomas and Chess Temperament Questionnaire during the previous 3 years. The other half had a stable, easy temperament according to these ratings. Observation of mother-child interactions demonstrated that the behaviour of mothers of easy and difficult children did not differ significantly, but difficult-temperament children showed significantly more negative and disputing behaviour than did easy children. Controlling and critical behaviours on the part of the mothers were particularly associated with child negativity, most notably when they occurred in the easy group. Mothers of the children in the easy group were likely to respond to child negativity with the encouragement of autonomy but this was extremely rare in the difficult group. Mothers of difficult children gave more positive encouragement to their children both before and after negative behaviour. Overall, the results indicated a different pattern of contingent responses for easy child-mother pairs, and also offered some support for the validity of mother ratings of difficult temperament.

Temperament and ecological context among Yucatec Mayan children

This study examined the relationships between temperament and ecological context among Yucatec Mayan children based on the assumption that maternal ethnotheories act as mediators and are related to world view. Since the latter is related to ecological context, its transformation may result in variations in ethnotheories and, therefore, temperament characteristics. Using standard questionnaires and ethnographic data, we evaluated 178 children aged 4 to 36 months from two villages representing the most contrasting ecological contexts in Yucatan, Mexico. Mothers described temperament-like behaviours as modos (ways) and related them to their concepts of development and children’s vulnerability, and to child-care and rearing practices. Age predicted threshold, approach, and intensity. Ecological context independently contributed to variations in approach, intensity, mood, and distractibility. Parental characteristics did not independently contribute but appeared to influence the relation between ecological context and mood, intensity, and distractibility. The findings suggest that temperament variations associated with ecological context may result from differences in maternal ethnotheories about rate of development and vulnerability of children and that knowledge of the national language and increased education without transformation of ecological context may have influenced ethnotheories on rate of development rather than on vulnerability.

A comparative study of child temperament and parenting in Beijing, China and the western United States

The purpose of this investigation was to examine comparable dimensions and linkages between child temperament and parenting styles with samples from Beijing, China and the western United States. Participants included 404 mothers and fathers from Beijing, China and 325 mothers and fathers from the western United States. Both mothers and fathers completed Buss and Plomin's (1984) EAS Temperament Scale as well as a spousal-report measure of parenting styles. Structural equation modelling was used to identify invariant (statistically comparable) factors for child temperament and parenting styles. Within-culture gender comparisons showed that Chinese fathers (relative to mothers) viewed their sons as being more active and sociable than daughters while US mothers (relative to fathers) rated their sons as being more active. Across-culture differences revealed that US parents (relative to Chinese parents) viewed children as more emotional while Chinese fathers (relative to US fathers) rated their children as more active. Similar and differential cultural patterns of linkages were also found between parenting styles and child temperament. Child emotionality was positively associated with authoritarian parenting in both cultures while child activity level was linked to more authoritative and less authoritarian parenting styles, but only in the Chinese sample. Finally, child sociability was found to be negatively linked to cross-gender patterns of authoritarian parenting in the US while mothers’ and fathers’ authoritarian parenting in China was linked to lower sociability in daughters only.

A Longitudinal Investigation of Predictors of the Association Between Age 3 and Age 6 Behavioural Inhibition

Children who exhibit elevated levels of the temperament trait behavioural inhibition (BI) across time may be at greatest risk for anxiety. However, little research has investigated the influence of other temperamental traits, particularly positive emotionality (PE), on the continuity of BI in childhood, nor whether parental overprotection influences associations between early and later child BI. To explore whether PE and overprotection shape associations between early and later BI, this longitudinal study of three-year-olds (N = 446) followed up at age 6 included tasks tapping child temperament, and parental overprotection was assessed via interview ratings and parent-report. Lower levels of child PE and higher levels of caregiver overprotection at baseline predicted stronger associations between laboratory-assessed BI at ages 3 and 6. Findings elucidate influences shaping the developmental continuity of BI.

Dropout in looking time studies: The role of infants' temperament and cognitive developmental status

Dropout of infants in looking time studies sometimes occurs at high rates, raising concerns that the representativeness of the final sample might be reduced in comparison to the originally obtained sample. The current study investigated which infant characteristics play a role in dropout. Infants were presented with a preferential looking task at 6 and 9 months of age. At 9 months of age, an additional habituation task and a subsequent novelty preference task were conducted. In addition, temperament was assessed via the Infant Behavior Questionnaire - Revised (IBQ-R, Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003), and cognitive developmental status was assessed via the Cognitive Scale of the Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III, Bayley, 2006). Dropout was positively related to the IBQ-R temperament scales Distress to Limitations and Approach, and negatively related to the scales Falling Reactivity and Cuddliness. The representativeness of the final sample regarding situation-specific temperament dimensions is affected by dropout. Dropout was not related to cognitive developmental status as measured via the BSID-III, habituation speed and novelty preference. Dropout at 6 months of age was associated with dropout at 9 months of age. We concluded that in looking time studies, the representativeness of the final sample regarding performance-relevant temperament dimensions or cognitive developmental status is not affected by dropout.

The predictive value of early behavioural assessments in pet dogs--a longitudinal study from neonates to adults

Studies on behavioural development in domestic dogs are of relevance for matching puppies with the right families, identifying predispositions for behavioural problems at an early stage, and predicting suitability for service dog work, police or military service. The literature is, however, inconsistent regarding the predictive value of tests performed during the socialisation period. Additionally, some practitioners use tests with neonates to complement later assessments for selecting puppies as working dogs, but these have not been validated. We here present longitudinal data on a cohort of Border collies, followed up from neonate age until adulthood. A neonate test was conducted with 99 Border collie puppies aged 2-10 days to assess activity, vocalisations when isolated and sucking force. At the age of 40-50 days, 134 puppies (including 93 tested as neonates) were tested in a puppy test at their breeders' homes. All dogs were adopted as pet dogs and 50 of them participated in a behavioural test at the age of 1.5 to 2 years with their owners. Linear mixed models found little correspondence between individuals' behaviour in the neonate, puppy and adult test. Exploratory activity was the only behaviour that was significantly correlated between the puppy and the adult test. We conclude that the predictive validity of early tests for predicting specific behavioural traits in adult pet dogs is limited.

Stability of child behavioral style in the first 30 months of life

The current study examined the stability of temperament over time. Observers and mothers rated child behavior at eight timepoints across three assessment waves (8, 15, and 30 months of age). Internal consistency reliability of aggregates of the eight observer reports and eight mother reports were high. When considering single timepoint assessments, stability of temperament between assessment waves was generally low to moderate in magnitude. When the eight observations were aggregated, rather than when single timepoints were considered, between-wave stability of temperament increased. Mother reports of temperament were generally more stable than observer reports. Results have important methodological implications and suggest multiple observations of child behavior within a single developmental period are necessary to evaluate the stability of temperament over time.

Physical activity in infancy: developmental aspects, measurement, and importance

Relative to work on nutrient intake and growth in infancy and toddlerhood, research on physical activity (PA) from birth to age 24 mo is limited. In this review, the developmental course of PA in infancy and toddlerhood is described, and the issues that surround its measurement are addressed. Of the variety of techniques that allow for gauging PA in infancy and toddlerhood, caregiver questionnaires, direct observations, and motion sensors have been used most frequently. Although each method has shown utility, the limitations of each are also acknowledged. In addition, the relation of early PA to nutrition and overweight in infants is considered. Despite the challenges to accurately monitoring early PA, its possible contribution to early excess weight gain should be recognized.

Longitudinal study on infants' temperament and physical development in Beijing, China

The objective of this longitudinal study is to explore the relationship between temperament and physical development among infants in Beijing, China. A total of 1117 term, normal and singleton infants were followed regularly for 12 months. Body weight and horizontal length were measured at 42 days and monthly from the third to twelfth month of their lives. Infants' temperament was assessed using the revised Chinese infants' temperament scale when the infants were 6 months. There was a significant difference on temperament dimensions between infants' genders (P < 0.05). Infants' weight and length were significantly related to their parents' weight and height. Infants with positive temperaments (easy and intermediate) were heavier than those with negative temperaments (difficult and slow to warm up) (P < 0.05). The horizontal length of boys was related to their temperament categories (P < 0.05). Infants' weight and length were significantly related to their temperament category and parents' weight and height.

Temperament and Sleep-Wake Behaviors from Infancy to Toddlerhood

Sleep-wake behaviors and temperament were examined longitudinally for trait stability and relationship to behavioral state regulation from infancy to early childhood. Subjects were 120 low-risk, full-term infants from a middle class sample. At 6 weeks, parents completed 3 consecutive days of the Baby's Day Diary which measures sleep, wake, fuss, feed and cry states and the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire. At 16 months, parents assessed sleep behaviors with the Sleep Habits Inventory and temperament with the Toddler Symptom Checklist. At 24 months, parents repeated 3 days of the Baby's Day Diary. Structural Equation Modeling was used to examine cross-age hypotheses for sleep-wake and temperament associations. From early infancy to toddlerhood, sleep-wake behaviors and irritable temperament were notably stable but independent in this cohort.

Mechanical measurement of infant activity: a cautionary note

Activity level in childhood has long been of interest to researchers in psychology, personality, and pediatrics. With the current epidemic in child obesity, even greater attention is being paid to physical activity and its role in preventing excess weight gain. Activity can be rated by observers as well as recorded more objectively by mechanical devices, however, some research suggests that estimates from these two sources do not always correlate. Via a demonstration with a human infant and a doll, the present report suggests that for younger infants at least, much of their measured activity may be confounded by their caregivers' movements.

Intrinsic and extrinsic factors associated with night waking in 9-month-old infants

This study examined relations between infant night waking and both daytime behaviors reflective of poor behavioral and emotional regulation (intrinsic factors) and parent behaviors that may contribute to infant night waking (extrinsic factors) in 41 infants. Mothers completed questionnaires and an infant sleep and crying diary. More time awake at night was related to separation distress, frequent daytime crying, dysregulation, co-sleeping with parents, breast feeding, and being put to bed asleep. More frequent waking was related to separation distress, frequent daytime crying, co-sleeping, and breast feeding. The combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors predicted night waking better than behaviors from one category alone. Implications for parenting are discussed.

Night and day: are siblings as different in temperament as parents say they are?

Twin studies suggest that parent ratings of temperament exaggerate differences between twins. The present study examined whether such contrast effects also operate for nontwin siblings. The activity level (AL) and shyness of 95 nontwin sibling pairs (ages 3 to 8 years) were assessed via parent ratings and objective measures (actigraph and observer ratings). Siblings showed no resemblance in either parent-rated AL or shyness; however, sibling resemblance for actigraph AL and observer-rated shyness was substantial. Thus, parents do contrast their nontwin siblings when rating these 2 temperament dimensions. Moreover, the importance of sibling differences in temperament to the sibling relationship and differential maternal treatment varied across the different measures of AL and shyness, suggesting that parent perceptions may play a role in these associations.

Child temperament does not predict adolescent body composition in girls

OBJECTIVES

Our previous cross-sectional analysis of MIT Growth and Development (MIT) Study girls showed that activity temperament, as assessed by a nine-item temperament questionnaire, was related to body composition and nonresting energy expenditure (NREE). In girls with lower levels of physical activity, having a high activity temperament was associated with a higher NREE. Percentage body fat was lower in girls with high vs low activity temperament. Based on these results, we hypothesized that, especially in girls with declining levels of physical activity over adolescence, high activity temperament in childhood would be protective against increased adiposity during adolescence. We tested this hypothesis with longitudinal data from the MIT study.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A total of 196 nonobese premenarcheal girls 8-12 y old were enrolled between 1990 and 1993. Girls were followed until 4 y postmenarche; average duration of follow-up was 7 y.

MEASURES

Activity temperament was assessed at baseline by the girls' mothers with questions modified from those developed by Thomas and Chess that tapped predilection for movement. Temperament, the stylistic component of behavior, is considered relatively stable within an individual. Body composition was assessed by total body water at baseline and study completion (4 y postmenarche), and by bioelectrical impedance (BIA) annually. Physical activity was assessed annually by questionnaire, and by activity diary at baseline only.

RESULTS

Child activity temperament was not associated with percentage body fat at 4 y postmenarche in multivariate regression models controlling for baseline percentage body fat, physical activity, parental obesity status, age at menarche, age at baseline, and race-ethnicity. Body composition of girls with low and high activity temperaments who reported declining levels of physical activity over adolescence was not statistically significantly different at study completion. In longitudinal models of percentage body fat by BIA, high activity temperament was not associated with lower adiposity.

CONCLUSION

Although high activity temperament was associated cross-sectionally with lower percentage body fat and higher NREE, we did not find evidence to support our hypothesis that high child activity temperament would be protective for increased adiposity prospectively in our cohort of girls followed over the adolescent period.

Temperamento: onze anos de levantamento no Psychological Abstracts

Análise da produção científica é um dos pré-requisitos para análise do desenvolvimento científico. Considerando o ressurgimento do temperamento no meio científico nas últimas décadas, este trabalho teve como objetivo verificar o "estado da arte" deste tema. Foi utilizado como suporte bibliográfico o Psychological Abstracts, considerando-se as áreas temáticas: Psicometria, Estatística e Metodologia; Psicologia do Desenvolvimento; Psicologia da Personalidade e Psicologia Educacional. Os dados foram computados em um quadro com indicação do autor, data, volume, número, tema, revista, faixa etária e tipo de artigo (teórico ou pesquisa). Os resultados foram tabulados relacionados à área temática, ao tipo de artigo e à faixa etária. Predominaram no levantamento artigos da área temática Psicologia do Desenvolvimento, artigos do tipo pesquisa e a maioria abordava a faixa etária infantil. Estes resultados confirmam dados da literatura contemporânea que revelam que o temperamento é considerado um dos componentes da personalidade e tem adquirido novas ênfases em Psicologia do Desenvolvimento.

What does fetal movement predict about behavior during the first two years of life?

This study evaluated whether motor activity prior to birth is predictive of motor behavior and temperament in neonates, infants, and toddlers. Three measures of fetal motor activity (activity level, amplitude, and number of movements) were collected at 24, 30, and 36 weeks of gestation in 52 healthy fetuses using Doppler-based actography. Postnatal data collection included a neurobehavioral assessment at 2-weeks postpartum (n = 41), and laboratory-based behavioral observations at 1 and 2 years of age (ns = 35). Individual stability in motor activity was present during gestation. Predictive relations between fetal movement and neonatal behavior were inconsistent; significant but small positive associations were detected between motor behavior at 36 weeks and neonatal irritability and motor development. Fetal activity level at 36 weeks was positively associated with observed 1-year activity level for boys (but inversely related for girls) and maternal report of activity level at 2 years. Fetal movement was consistently and negatively predictive of distress to limitations at 1 year and behavioral inhibition at 2 years, accounting for 21 to 43% of the variance in these measures. Intrafetal variability in motor behavior makes this a relatively unstable metric for prediction to neonatal maturational outcomes, which are relatively constrained, but fetal motor activity appears to predict temperament attributes related to regulatory behaviors in early childhood.

Relationship of early infant state measures to behavior over the first year of life in the tufted capuchin monkey (Cebus apella)

Data on activity states were collected from 29 group-housed capuchin monkey (Cebus apella) infants for 3 h each week from birth to 11 weeks of age. The amounts of time spent in sleeping/drowsy, alert-quiet, and alert-active states were measured in these subjects. Videotaped observations of these infants were recorded 3 times/week in the home cage over the first year of life and were scored for a number of social and exploratory behaviors. The extent to which early infant activity state scores predicted later behavior in the home cage was examined. Infant state measures correlated significantly with home cage behavior during months 2-6 in that infants that had been more active in early infancy spent more time alone, with other animals, and in exploration and play and less time with mothers than did quieter infants. Early state measures were less successful in predicting home cage scores beyond 8 months of age, whereas differences in behavior attributable to housing variables became more salient in the latter part of the first year. There was also a negative correlation between mother and infant activity in months 2 and 3, in that more sedentary mothers tended to have more active infants.

Temperament and attachment: one construct or two?

In this chapter we described the constructs of temperament and attachment and have discussed similarities and differences between the two. We addressed the issue of whether temperament contributes to overall attachment security or to the specific type of attachment that children display. We conclude that although temperament may influence the type of secure and insecure attachment relationship children form with their parent, temperament alone will not determine if a child is classified as securely or insecurely attached. We presented evidence suggesting that certain dimensions of temperament, specifically negative emotionality, may be associated with infants' behavior during the Strange Situation, such as proneness-to-distress during separations. However, we noted that these temperament dimensions do not predict overall security of attachment. It is likely that although no single temperament characteristic, such as proneness-to-distress, in and of itself determines overall attachment security, it is possible that a constellation of temperament characteristics may be more strongly related to attachment security. The examination of constellations of temperament characteristics may be particularly useful for furthering our understanding of individual differences within attachment classifications. Such an approach may elucidate the reasons why infants are classified into one subgroup of secure, insecure-avoidant, or insecure-resistant attachment versus another subgroup. Furthermore, we suggest that the collection of findings regarding temperament and attachment not only underscores the importance of a transactional approach to early social-emotional development, but emphasizes that temperament and attachment can make unique and interactive contributions to children's social-emotional functioning. That is, the goodness-of-fit between infant and parent characteristics may best predict security of attachment. Although child characteristics clearly contribute to the development of the parent-child relationship, we believe that the effects of infant temperament on infant-caregiver attachment may well be indirect, and may be moderated by such variables as maternal personality and social support. Thus, taken together, a growing literature clearly indicates that although temperament and attachment security are interrelated, they are by no means interchangeable constructs. To return to our guiding question, "Temperament and attachment: One construct or two?" We reply, "two."