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Teder T, Kaasik A, Taits K, Tammaru T. Why do males emerge before females? Sexual size dimorphism drives sexual bimaturism in insects. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2461-2475. [PMID: 34128582 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Conspecific females and males often follow different development trajectories which leads to sex differences in age at maturity (sexual bimaturism, SBM). Whether SBM is typically selected for per se (direct selection hypothesis) or merely represents a side-effect of other sex-related adaptations (indirect selection hypothesis) is, however, still an open question. Substantial interspecific variation in the direction and degree of SBM, both in invertebrates and vertebrates, calls for multi-species studies to understand the relative importance of its evolutionary drivers. Here we use two complementary approaches to evaluate the evolutionary basis of SBM in insects. For this purpose, we assembled an extensive literature-derived data set of sex-specific development times and body sizes for a taxonomically and ecologically wide range of species. We use these data in a meta-analytic framework to evaluate support for the direct and indirect selection hypotheses. Our results confirm that protandry - males emerging as adults before females - is the prevailing form of SBM in insects. Nevertheless, protandry is not as ubiquitous as often presumed: females emerged before males (= protogyny) in about 36% of the 192 species for which we had data. Moreover, in a considerable proportion of species, the sex difference in the timing of adult emergence was negligible. In search for the evolutionary basis of SBM, we found stronger support for the hypothesis that explains SBM by indirect selection. First, across species, the direction and degree of SBM appeared to be positively associated with the direction and degree of sexual size dimorphism (SSD). This is consistent with the view that SBM is a correlative by-product of evolution towards sexually dimorphic body sizes. Second, within protandrous species, the degree of protandry typically increased with plastic increase in development time, with females prolonging their development more than males in unfavourable conditions. This pattern is in conflict with the direct selection hypothesis, which predicts the degree of protandry to be insensitive to the quality of the juvenile environment. These converging lines of evidence support the idea that, in insects, SBM is generally a by-product of SSD rather than a result of selection on the two sexes to mature at different times. It appears plausible that selective pressures on maturation time per se generally cannot compete with viability- and fecundity-mediated selection on insect body sizes. Nevertheless, exceptions certainly exist: there are undeniable cases of SBM where this trait has evolved in response to direct selection. In such cases, either the advantage of sex difference in maturation time must have been particularly large, or fitness effects of body size have been unusually weak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiit Teder
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu, EE-51003, Estonia.,Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Praha 6 - Suchdol, 165 21, Czech Republic
| | - Ants Kaasik
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu, EE-51003, Estonia
| | - Kristiina Taits
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu, EE-51003, Estonia
| | - Toomas Tammaru
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu, EE-51003, Estonia
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Via S. GENETIC COVARIANCE BETWEEN OVIPOSITION PREFERENCE AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE IN AN INSECT HERBIVORE. Evolution 2017; 40:778-785. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1986.tb00537.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/1985] [Accepted: 02/24/1986] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Via
- Department of Zoology; Duke University; Durham NC 27706
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Davies AB, van Rensburg BJ, Robertson MP, Levick SR, Asner GP, Parr CL. Seasonal variation in the relative dominance of herbivore guilds in an African savanna. Ecology 2016; 97:1618-24. [DOI: 10.1890/15-1905.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B. Davies
- Centre for Invasion Biology; Department of Zoology and Entomology; University of Pretoria; Pretoria 0002 South Africa
- Department of Global Ecology; Carnegie Institution for Science; 260 Panama Street Stanford California 94305 USA
| | - Berndt J. van Rensburg
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Queensland; St. Lucia QLD 4072 Australia
- Department of Zoology, DST-NRF Centre for Invasion Biology; University of Johannesburg; Auckland Park Johannesburg 2006 South Africa
| | - Mark P. Robertson
- Centre for Invasion Biology; Department of Zoology and Entomology; University of Pretoria; Pretoria 0002 South Africa
| | - Shaun R. Levick
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry; Hans-Knöll Street 10 Jena 07745 Germany
| | - Gregory P. Asner
- Department of Global Ecology; Carnegie Institution for Science; 260 Panama Street Stanford California 94305 USA
| | - Catherine L. Parr
- School of Environmental Sciences; University of Liverpool; Liverpool L69 3GP United Kingdom
- Department of Animal, Plant and Environmental Science; University of the Witwatersrand; Johannesburg 2000 South Africa
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Ullah MI, Mustafa F, Hoback WW, Brust ML, Farnsworth-Hoback KM, Foster JE. Short-horned grasshopper subfamilies feed at different rates on big bluestem and switchgrass cultivars. Biologia (Bratisl) 2015. [DOI: 10.1515/biolog-2015-0188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Rosetti N, Remis MI. Phenotypic Variation and Sexual Size Dimorphism in Dichroplus elongatus (Orthoptera: Acrididae). ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2015; 44:1240-1249. [PMID: 26314070 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvv101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Patterns of body size evolution are of particular interest because body size can affect virtually all the physiological and life history traits of an organism. Sexual size dimorphism (SSD), a difference in body size between males and females, is a widespread phenomenon in insects. Much of the variation in SSD is genetically based and likely due to differential selection acting on males and females. The importance of environmental variables and evolutionary processes affecting phenotypeic variation in both sexes may be useful to gain insights into insect ecology and evolution. Dichroplus elongatus Giglio-Tos is a South American grasshopper widely distributed throughout Argentina, Uruguay, most of Chile, and southern Brazil. In this study, we analyzed 122 adult females of D. elongatus collected in eight natural populations from central-east Argentina. Females show large body size variation among the analyzed populations and this variation exhibits a strong relationship with fecundity. Our results have shown that larger females were more fecund than smaller ones. We found that ovariole number varied along a latitudinal gradient, with higher ovariole numbers in populations from warmer locations. A considerable female-biased SSD was detected. SSD for three analyzed morphometric traits scaled isometrically. However, SSD for thorax length displayed a considerable variation across the studied area, indicating a larger relative increase in female size than in male size in warmer environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Rosetti
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, University of Buenos Aires,C1428EHA Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M I Remis
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, University of Buenos Aires,C1428EHA Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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RADFORD IANJ, ANDERSEN ALANN. Effects of fire on grass-layer savanna macroinvertebrates as key food resources for insectivorous vertebrates in northern Australia. AUSTRAL ECOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-9993.2012.02413.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Cornelissen T, Wilson Fernandes G, Vasconcellos-Neto J. Size does matter: variation in herbivory between and within plants and the plant vigor hypothesis. OIKOS 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0030-1299.2008.16588.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Turlings TCJ, Jeanbourquin PM, Held M, Degen T. Evaluating the Induced-Odour Emission of a Bt Maize and its Attractiveness to Parasitic Wasps. Transgenic Res 2005; 14:807-16. [PMID: 16315088 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-005-0008-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2005] [Accepted: 06/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The current discussion on the safety of transgenic crops includes their effects on beneficial insects, such as parasitoids and predators of pest insects. One important plant trait to consider in this context is the emission of volatiles in response to herbivory. Natural enemies use the odours that result from these emissions as cues to locate their herbivorous prey and any significant change in these plant-provided signals may disrupt their search efficiency. There is a need for practical and reliable methods to evaluate transgenic crops for this and other important plant traits. Moreover, it is imperative that such evaluations are done in the context of variability for these traits among conventional genotypes of a crop. For maize and the induction of volatile emissions by caterpillar feeding this variability is known and realistic comparisons can therefore be made. Here we used a six-arm olfactometer that permits the simultaneous collection of volatiles emitted by multiple plants and testing of their attractiveness to insects. With this apparatus we measured the induced odour emissions of Bt maize (Bt11, N4640Bt) and its near-isogenic line (N4640) and the attractiveness of these odours to Cotesia marginiventris and Microplitis rufiventris, two important larval parasitoids of common lepidopteran pests. Both parasitoid species were strongly attracted to induced maize odour and neither wasp distinguished between the odours of the transgenic and the isogenic line. Also wasps that had previously experienced one of the odours during a successful oviposition divided their choices equally between the two odours. However, chemical analyses of collected odours revealed significant quantitative differences. The same 11 compounds dominated the blends of both genotypes, but the isogenic line released a larger amount of most of these. These differences may be due to altered resource allocation in the transgenic line, but it had no measurable effect on the wasps' behaviour. All compounds identified here had been previously reported for maize and the differential quantities in which they were released fall well within the range of variability observed for other maize genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ted C J Turlings
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie Animale et Entomologie, Institut de Zoologie, Université de Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
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Cornelissen T, Stiling P. Perfect is best: low leaf fluctuating asymmetry reduces herbivory by leaf miners. Oecologia 2004; 142:46-56. [PMID: 15378348 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-004-1724-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2003] [Accepted: 09/02/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) represents small, random variation from symmetry and can be used as an indicator of plant susceptibility to herbivory. We investigated the effects of FA of two oak species, Quercus laevis and Q. geminata, and the responses of three herbivore guilds: leaf miners, gallers, and chewers. To examine differences in FA and herbivory between individuals, 40 leaves from each tree were collected, and FA indices were calculated. To examine differences in FA and herbivory within-individuals, we sampled pairs of mined and unmined leaves for asymmetry measurements. Differences in growth of leaf miners between leaf types were determined by tracing 50 mines of each species on symmetric leaves and asymmetric leaves. Asymmetric leaves contained significantly lower concentrations of tannins and higher concentrations of nitrogen than symmetric leaves for both plant species. Both frequency of asymmetric leaves on plants and levels of asymmetry positively influenced the abundance of Brachys, Stilbosis and other leaf miners, but no significant relationship between asymmetry and herbivory was observed for Acrocercops. Brachys and Stilbosis mines were smaller on asymmetric leaves, but differences in mine survivorship between symmetric and asymmetric leaves were observed only for Stilbosis mines. This study indicated that leaf miners might use leaf FA as a cue to plant quality, although differential survivorship among leaf types was not observed for all species studied. Reasons for the different results between guilds are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Cornelissen
- Department of Biology SCA 110, University of South Florida, 4202 E Fowler Av, Tampa, FL 33620-5150, USA.
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Preszler RW, Gaylord ES, Boecklen WJ. Reduced parasitism of a leaf-mining moth on trees with high infection frequencies of an endophytic fungus. Oecologia 1996; 108:159-166. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00333227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/1995] [Accepted: 03/06/1996] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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HATCHER PAULE. THREE-WAY INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PLANT PATHOGENIC FUNGI, HERBIVOROUS INSECTS AND THEIR HOST PLANTS. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 1995. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185x.1995.tb01655.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Effect of water availability on the phenotypic expression of herbivore resistance in northern red oak seedlings (Quercus rubra L.). Oecologia 1994; 100:309-315. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00316959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/1994] [Accepted: 07/08/1994] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Mappes J, Mäkelä I. Egg and larval load assessment and its influence on oviposition behaviour of the leaf beetle Galerucella nymphaeae. Oecologia 1993; 93:38-41. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00321188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/1992] [Accepted: 08/21/1992] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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18
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Hinks C, Hupka D, Olfert O. Nutrition and the protein economy in grasshoppers and locusts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0300-9629(93)90020-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Renaud PE, Hay ME, Schmitt TM. Interactions of plant stress and herbivory: intraspecific variation in the susceptibility of a palatable versus an unpalatable seaweed to sea urchin grazing. Oecologia 1990; 82:217-226. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00323538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/1988] [Revised: 09/15/1989] [Accepted: 10/16/1989] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Menge BA, Olson AM. Role of scale and environmental factors in regulation of community structure. Trends Ecol Evol 1990; 5:52-7. [DOI: 10.1016/0169-5347(90)90048-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Interplant variation in creosotebush foliage characteristics and canopy arthropods. Oecologia 1989; 81:166-175. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00379801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/1989] [Accepted: 06/08/1989] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Turelli M, Hoffmann AA. Effects of starvation and experience on the response of Drosophila to alternative resources. Oecologia 1988; 77:497-505. [PMID: 28311269 DOI: 10.1007/bf00377265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/1988] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effects of starvation and previous diet on the response of Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans to alternative resources in the field by simultaneously releasing flies from different laboratory treatments then comparing the proportions captured on two different types of bait. Starvation altered response in all field releases. In conjunction with each release of starved and unstarved flies, the quality of the alternative resources as feeding and breeding sites was tested in the laboratory. Different kinds of tests often produced different rankings, making it difficult to rank resource quality unambiguously. Tentative rankings could be assigned when a resource that was slightly inferior by one criterion was greatly superior by another. Based on these rankings, two of three sets of resource comparisons support the hypothesis that unstarved flies are captured relatively more frequently on better resources than are starved flies. We also tested the effect of prior adult exposure to one of two alternative rotted fruits by comparing the proportions captured on each fruit in the field. Unlike previous studies, we found no systematic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Turelli
- Department of Genetics, University of California, 95616, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Ary A Hoffmann
- Department of Genetics and Human Variation, La Trobe University, 3083, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
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Variation in methylglucosinolate and insect damage toCleome serrulata (Capparaceae) along a natural soil moisture gradient. J Chem Ecol 1987; 13:569-81. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01880100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/1985] [Accepted: 04/14/1986] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Karban R. Environmental conditions affecting the strength of induced resistance against mites in cotton. Oecologia 1987; 73:414-419. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00385258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/1986] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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The effect of wilting on palatability of plants to Schistocerca gregaria, the desert locust. Oecologia 1986; 70:132-135. [PMID: 28311298 DOI: 10.1007/bf00377122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/1985] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous work has shown that host choice by acridids (grasshoppers and locusts) is sensitive to alterations in host quality. In particular, reduced plant water content has been found to increase palatability of certain plant species. To determine if this phenomenon is general, and to gain preliminary information on causes, turgid and wilted plant material of forty-one species was tested using nymphs of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria. Twelve plant species (29%) had increased and five (12%) had decreased palatability (as measured by meal size) when wilted. Among fifteen families tested, the increases occurred in six, the decreases in three. The greatest change occurred in Taraxacum officinale; further tests on this plant revealed the increase to be continuous, rising with decreasing water content. The behavioral observations combined with the pattern of the results across plant species suggest that changes are due to alterations in specific deterrents or stimulants, rather than to decreased water content or increased concentrations of amino acids and/or sugars. The implications of these results for understanding drought-associated population outbreaks are discussed.
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Singer MC. The Definition and Measurement of Oviposition Preference in Plant-Feeding Insects. SPRINGER SERIES IN EXPERIMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 1986. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4612-4910-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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