|
2
|
Glibert PM, Azanza R, Burford M, Furuya K, Abal E, Al-Azri A, Al-Yamani F, Andersen P, Beardall J, Berg GM, Brand L, Bronk D, Brookes J, Burkholder JM, Cembella A, Cochlan WP, Collier J, Collos Y, Diaz R, Doblin M, Drennen T, Dyhrman S, Fukuyo Y, Furnas M, Galloway J, Granéli E, Ha DV, Hallegraeff G, Harrison J, Harrison PJ, Heil CA, Heimann K, Howarth R, Jauzein C, Kana AA, Kana TM, Kim H, Kudela R, Legrand C, Mallin M, Mulholland M, Murray S, O’Neil J, Pitcher G, Qi Y, Rabalais N, Raine R, Seitzinger S, Solomon C, Stoecker DK, Usup G, Wilson J, Yin K, Zhou M, Zhu M. Ocean urea fertilization for carbon credits poses high ecological risks. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2008; 56:1049-56. [PMID: 18439628 PMCID: PMC5373553 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/02/2008] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The proposed plan for enrichment of the Sulu Sea, Philippines, a region of rich marine biodiversity, with thousands of tonnes of urea in order to stimulate algal blooms and sequester carbon is flawed for multiple reasons. Urea is preferentially used as a nitrogen source by some cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates, many of which are neutrally or positively buoyant. Biological pumps to the deep sea are classically leaky, and the inefficient burial of new biomass makes the estimation of a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere questionable at best. The potential for growth of toxic dinoflagellates is also high, as many grow well on urea and some even increase their toxicity when grown on urea. Many toxic dinoflagellates form cysts which can settle to the sediment and germinate in subsequent years, forming new blooms even without further fertilization. If large-scale blooms do occur, it is likely that they will contribute to hypoxia in the bottom waters upon decomposition. Lastly, urea production requires fossil fuel usage, further limiting the potential for net carbon sequestration. The environmental and economic impacts are potentially great and need to be rigorously assessed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia M. Glibert
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Horn Point Laboratory, PO Box 775, Cambridge MD 21613, USA; ; ; ;
- Corresponding author:; 410-221-8422 (office); 410-221-8490 (fax)
| | - Rhodora Azanza
- The Marine Science Institute, Velasquez, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines;
| | - Michele Burford
- Griffith University, Australian Rivers Institute, Kessel Rd., Nathan Queensland 4111, Australia; ;
| | - Ken Furuya
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, the University of Tokyo, Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan;
| | - Eva Abal
- South East Queensland Healthy Waterways Partnership, 239 George Street, GPO Box 1434, Brisbane Queensland 4001, Australia;
| | - Adnan Al-Azri
- Dept. of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O.Box 34, Al-Khodh, PC123 Muscat, Oman;
| | - Faiza Al-Yamani
- Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O Box 24885 Safat 13109, Kuwait;
| | - Per Andersen
- Orbicon A/S, Jens Juuls Vej 18, 8260, Viby J., Denmark;
| | - John Beardall
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton Victoria 3800, Australia;
| | - G. Mine Berg
- Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA;
| | - Larry Brand
- Division of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Rosentiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA;
| | - Deborah Bronk
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA; ;
| | - Justin Brookes
- Water Research Cluster, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide South Australia 5005, Australia;
| | - JoAnn M. Burkholder
- Center for Applied Aquatic Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA;
| | - Allan Cembella
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | - William P. Cochlan
- Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94920, USA;
| | - Jackie Collier
- Marine Sciences Research Center, SUNY Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA;
| | - Yves Collos
- Université Montpellier 2, CNRS, Ifremer, Laboratoire Ecosystèmes Lagunaires (UMR 5119) CC093, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France; ;
| | - Robert Diaz
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA; ;
| | - Martina Doblin
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123, Broadway NSW 2007, Australia;
| | - Thomas Drennen
- Departments of Economics and Environmental Studies, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva NY 14456, USA; ;
| | - Sonya Dyhrman
- Biology Department MS#33, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA;
| | - Yasuwo Fukuyo
- Asian Natural Environmental Science Center, the University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan;
| | - Miles Furnas
- Water Quality and Ecosystem Health Team, Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB No. 3, Townsville MC, Queensland 4810, Australia;
| | - James Galloway
- Environmental Sciences Department, Clark Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 22903 VA, USA;
| | - Edna Granéli
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Kalmar, 39182 Kalmar, Sweden; ;
| | - Dao Viet Ha
- Institute of Oceanography, Cauda 01, Vinh Nguyen, Nhatrang City, Vietnam;
| | - Gustaaf Hallegraeff
- School of Plant Science,University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart Tasmania 7001, Australia;
| | - John Harrison
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Washington State University, Vancouver Campus, 14204 NE Salmon Creek Avenue, Vancouver, WA 98686, USA;
| | - Paul J. Harrison
- Atmospheric, Marine and Coastal Environment Program, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China;
| | - Cynthia A. Heil
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, 100 Eighth Ave., S., St. Petersburg, FL 33701 USA;
| | - Kirsten Heimann
- School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville Queensland 4811, Australia;
| | - Robert Howarth
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, E311 Corson Hall, Ithaca NY 14853, USA;
| | - Cécile Jauzein
- Université Montpellier 2, CNRS, Ifremer, Laboratoire Ecosystèmes Lagunaires (UMR 5119) CC093, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France; ;
| | - Austin A. Kana
- Departments of Economics and Environmental Studies, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva NY 14456, USA; ;
| | - Todd M. Kana
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Horn Point Laboratory, PO Box 775, Cambridge MD 21613, USA; ; ; ;
| | - Hakgyoon Kim
- Pukyong National University, Department of Ocean Science, 599-1 Daeyon-Dong, Nam-gu, Busan, Korea;
| | - Raphael Kudela
- Ocean Sciences and Institute for Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA;
| | - Catherine Legrand
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Kalmar, 39182 Kalmar, Sweden; ;
| | - Michael Mallin
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, N.C. 28409;
| | - Margaret Mulholland
- Department of Ocean, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Old Dominion University, 4600 Elkhorn Avenue, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA;
| | - Shauna Murray
- School of Biological Sciences A08, University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Judith O’Neil
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Horn Point Laboratory, PO Box 775, Cambridge MD 21613, USA; ; ; ;
| | - Grant Pitcher
- Marine and Coastal Management, Private Bag X2, Rogge Bay 8012, Cape Town, South Africa;
| | - Yuzao Qi
- Jinan University, Research Center for Harmful Algae and Aquatic Environment, 510632, Guanzhou, P.R. China;
| | - Nancy Rabalais
- Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Chauvin, LA 70344, USA;
| | - Robin Raine
- Martin Ryan Institute, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland;
| | - Sybil Seitzinger
- Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Rutgers/NOAA CMER, 71 Dudley Road, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA;
| | - Caroline Solomon
- Department of Biology, Gallaudet University, 800 Florida Ave, NE, Washington D.C. 20002, USA;
| | - Diane K. Stoecker
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Horn Point Laboratory, PO Box 775, Cambridge MD 21613, USA; ; ; ;
| | - Gires Usup
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitii Kebagsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Joanne Wilson
- Coral Triangle Centre, The Nature Conservancy, Jl Pengembak 2, Sanur, 80228, Bali, Indonesia;
| | - Kedong Yin
- Griffith University, Australian Rivers Institute, Kessel Rd., Nathan Queensland 4111, Australia; ;
| | - Mingjiang Zhou
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, P.R. China;
| | - Mingyuan Zhu
- First Institute of Oceanography, 6 Xianxialing Road, High-tech Industrial Park, 266061 Qingdao, P.R. China;
| |
Collapse
|