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Colón Carrión N, Troche CL, Arnold AE. Communities of endophytic fungi in a Puerto Rican rainforest vary along a gradient of disturbance due to Hurricane Maria. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9618. [PMID: 36532133 PMCID: PMC9750846 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Increases in the frequency and intensity of hurricanes influence the structure, function, and resilience of Caribbean forests. Trees in such forests harbor diverse fungal endophytes within leaves and roots. Fungal endophytes often are important for plant health and stress responses, but how their communities are impacted by hurricanes is not well known. We measured forest disturbance in Carite State Forest in Puerto Rico ca. 16 months after the passage of Hurricane Maria, a Category 4 storm. In three sites, each comprising three plots representing a local gradient of hurricane disturbance, we evaluated soil chemistry and used culture-free analyses to measure richness, phylogenetic diversity, and composition of endophyte communities in leaves and roots. We found that endophyte richness did not vary significantly among plant families or as a function of soil chemistry. Instead, leaf endophytes peaked in richness and decreased in phylogenetic diversity at intermediate levels of disturbance. Root endophytes did not show such variation, but both leaf- and root endophyte communities differed in species composition as a function of disturbance across the forest. Locations with less disturbance typically hosted distinctive assemblages of foliar endophytes, whereas more disturbed locations had more regionally homogeneous endophyte communities. Together, our results show that changes in endophyte richness and phylogenetic diversity can be detected in aboveground tissues more than a year after major storms. In turn, pervasive shifts in endophyte community composition both aboveground and belowground suggest a subtle and lasting effect of hurricanes that merits further study, potentially contributing to the promotion of spatially heterogeneous endophyte assemblages at a landscape scale in these diverse island forests.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - A. Elizabeth Arnold
- School of Plant SciencesUniversity of ArizonaTucsonArizonaUSA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ArizonaTucsonArizonaUSA
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Zheng H, Qiao M, Xu J, Yu Z. Culture-Based and Culture-Independent Assessments of Endophytic Fungal Diversity in Aquatic Plants in Southwest China. FRONTIERS IN FUNGAL BIOLOGY 2021; 2:692549. [PMID: 37744110 PMCID: PMC10512276 DOI: 10.3389/ffunb.2021.692549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Aquatic ecosystems contain tremendous plant and microbial diversity. However, little is known about endophyte diversity in aquatic plants. In this study, we investigated the diversity of endophytic fungi in aquatic plants in southwest China using both culture-based and culture-independent high-throughput sequencing methods. A total of 1,689 fungal isolates belonging to three phyla and 154 genera were obtained from 15,373 plant tissue segments of 30 aquatic plant species. The most abundant endophytic fungi were those in ascomycete genera Aspergillus, Ceratophoma, Fusarium, Penicillium, Phoma and Plectosporium. No difference in fungal isolation rates was observed among tissues from roots, stems, and leaves. Twenty tissue samples from three most common plant species were further subjected to culture-independent meta-barcode sequencing. The sequence-based analyses revealed a total of 1,074 OTUs belonging to six fungal phyla and 194 genera. Among the three plants, Batrachium bungei harbored the highest number of OTUs. Besides, a total of 66 genera were detected by two methods. Both the culture-dependent and independent methods revealed that aquatic plants in southwest China have abundant endophytic fungal diversity. This study significantly expands our knowledge of the fungal community of aquatic plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Zheng
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
| | - Min Qiao
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
| | - Jianping Xu
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Zefen Yu
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
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Fang K, Miao YF, Chen L, Zhou J, Yang ZP, Dong XF, Zhang HB. Tissue-Specific and Geographical Variation in Endophytic Fungi of Ageratina adenophora and Fungal Associations With the Environment. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2919. [PMID: 31921082 PMCID: PMC6930192 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the distribution of the cultivable fungal community in plant tissues and the associations of these fungi with their surrounding environments during the geographical expansion of an invasive plant, Ageratina adenophora, we isolated the cultivable fungi from 72 plant tissues, 12 soils, and 12 air samples collected from six areas in Yunnan Province, China. A total of 4066 isolates were investigated, including 1641 endophytic fungi, 233 withered leaf fungi, 1255 fungi from air, and 937 fungi from soil. These fungi were divided into 458 and 201 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) with unique and 97% ITS gene sequence identity, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the fungi belonged to four phyla, including Ascomycota (94.20%), Basidiomycota (2.71%), Mortierellomycota (3.03%), and Mucoromycota (0.07%). The dominant genera of cultivable endophytic fungi were Colletotrichum (34.61%), Diaporthe (17.24%), Allophoma (8.03%), and Fusarium (4.44%). Colletotrichum and Diaporthe were primarily isolated from mature leaves, Allophoma from stems, and Fusarium from roots, indicating that the enrichment of endophytic fungi is tissue-specific and fungi rarely grew systemically within A. adenophora. In the surrounding environment, Alternaria (21.46%), Allophoma (19.31%), Xylaria (18.45%), and Didymella (18.03%) were dominant in the withered leaves, Cladosporium (22.86%), Trichoderma (14.27%), and Epicoccum (9.83%) were dominant in the canopy air, and Trichoderma (27.27%) and Mortierella (20.46%) were dominant in the rhizosphere soils. Further analysis revealed that the cultivable endophytic fungi changed across geographic areas and showed a certain degree of variation in different tissues of A. adenophora. The cultivable fungi in mature and withered leaves fluctuated more than those in roots and stems. We also found that some cultivable endophytic fungi might undergo tissue-to-tissue migration and that the stem could be a transport tissue by which airborne fungi infect roots. Finally, we provided evidence that the fungal community within A. adenophora was partially shared with the contiguous environment. The data suggested a frequent interaction between fungi associated with A. adenophora and those in surrounding environments, reflecting a compromise driven by both functional requirements for plant growth and local environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Fang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
| | - Yi-Fang Miao
- Lu Cheng Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changzhi, China
| | - Lin Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
| | - Jie Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
| | - Zhi-Ping Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
| | - Xing-Fan Dong
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
| | - Han-Bo Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
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Observations on the Early Establishment of Foliar Endophytic Fungi in Leaf Discs and Living Leaves of a Model Woody Angiosperm, Populus trichocarpa (Salicaceae). J Fungi (Basel) 2018; 4:jof4020058. [PMID: 29772709 PMCID: PMC6023450 DOI: 10.3390/jof4020058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal endophytes are diverse and widespread symbionts that occur in the living tissues of all lineages of plants without causing evidence of disease. Culture-based and culture-free studies indicate that they often are abundant in the leaves of woody angiosperms, but only a few studies have visualized endophytic fungi in leaf tissues, and the process through which most endophytes colonize leaves has not been studied thoroughly. We inoculated leaf discs and the living leaves of a model woody angiosperm, Populus trichocarpa, which has endophytes that represent three distantly-related genera (Cladosporium, Penicillium, and Trichoderma). We used scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy to evaluate the timeline and processes by which they colonize leaf tissue. Under laboratory conditions with high humidity, conidia germinated on leaf discs to yield hyphae that grew epiphytically and incidentally entered stomata, but did not grow in a directed fashion toward stomatal openings. No cuticular penetration was observed. The endophytes readily colonized the interiors of leaf discs that were detached from living leaves, and could be visualized within discs with light microscopy. Although they were difficult to visualize within the interior of living leaves following in vivo inoculations, standard methods for isolating foliar endophytes confirmed their presence.
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Tibpromma S, Hyde KD, Bhat JD, Mortimer PE, Xu J, Promputtha I, Doilom M, Yang JB, Tang AMC, Karunarathna SC. Identification of endophytic fungi from leaves of Pandanaceae based on their morphotypes and DNA sequence data from southern Thailand. MycoKeys 2018. [DOI: 10.3897/mycokeys.32.23670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The authors established the taxonomic status of endophytic fungi associated with leaves of Pandanaceae collected from southern Thailand. Morphotypes were initially identified based on their characteristics in culture and species level identification was done based on both morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequence data. Twenty-two isolates from healthy leaves were categorised into eight morphotypes. Appropriate universal primers were used to amplify specific gene regions and phylogenetic analyses were performed to identify these endophytes and established relationships with extant fungi. The authors identified both ascomycete and basidiomycete species, including one new genus, seven new species and nine known species. Morphological descriptions, colour plates and phylogenies are given for each taxon.
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Tibpromma S, Hyde KD, Bhat JD, Mortimer PE, Xu J, Promputtha I, Doilom M, Yang JB, Tang AMC, Karunarathna SC. Identification of endophytic fungi from leaves of Pandanaceae based on their morphotypes and DNA sequence data from southern Thailand. MycoKeys 2018; 33:25-67. [PMID: 30532625 PMCID: PMC6283267 DOI: 10.3897/mycokeys.33.23670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The authors established the taxonomic status of endophytic fungi associated with leaves of Pandanaceae collected from southern Thailand. Morphotypes were initially identified based on their characteristics in culture and species level identification was done based on both morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequence data. Twenty-two isolates from healthy leaves were categorised into eight morphotypes. Appropriate universal primers were used to amplify specific gene regions and phylogenetic analyses were performed to identify these endophytes and established relationships with extant fungi. The authors identified both ascomycete and basidiomycete species, including one new genus, seven new species and nine known species. Morphological descriptions, colour plates and phylogenies are given for each taxon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saowaluck Tibpromma
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
- Centre of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, 57100, Thailand
| | - Kevin D. Hyde
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
- Centre of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, 57100, Thailand
| | - Jayarama D. Bhat
- Formerly, Department of Botany, Goa University, Taleigão, Goa, India
- No. 128/1-J, Azad Housing Society, Curca, Goa Velha, India
| | - Peter E. Mortimer
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianchu Xu
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Itthayakorn Promputtha
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
- Environmental Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, 50200, Thailand
| | - Mingkwan Doilom
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
- Centre of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, 57100, Thailand
| | - Jun-Bo Yang
- Germplasm Bank of Wild Species in Southwest China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China
| | - Alvin M. C. Tang
- Division of Applied Science, College of International Education, The Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Samantha C. Karunarathna
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
- Centre of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, 57100, Thailand
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Singh DK, Sharma VK, Kumar J, Mishra A, Verma SK, Sieber TN, Kharwar RN. Diversity of endophytic mycobiota of tropical tree Tectona grandis Linn.f.: Spatiotemporal and tissue type effects. Sci Rep 2017; 7:3745. [PMID: 28623306 PMCID: PMC5473821 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-03933-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal endophytes were isolated from leaf, bark and stem of Tectona grandis Linn.f. sampled at four geographical locations in winter, summer and monsoon seasons. The recovered 5089 isolates were assigned to 45 distinct morphotypes based on morphology. The sequences of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of the nrDNA of some morphotypes were identical, but morphological differences were strong enough to consider these morphotypes as separate species. Forty-three morphotypes were assigned to ascomycotina and two to basidiomycotina. Ascomycotina was the predominating group with 99.7% of total isolates followed by basidiomycotina with only 0.3% of total isolates. Diaporthe (Phomopsis) species dominated the communities independently on tissue type, location or season. More than 60% of the examined tissue pieces were colonized by members of this species complex. While these endophytes are ubiquitous others were tissue or location specific. Tissue type had the strongest effect on the species evenness of the endophytic assemblage followed by geographical location and season. However, Shannon-Wiener index (H') significantly (p ≤ 0.001) varied with all three factors i.e. season, location and tissue type. Leaves supported the highest diversity across all the seasons and locations. In conclusion, all the three factors together determined the structure of endophytic mycobiota assemblage of T. grandis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dheeraj K Singh
- Mycopathology and Microbial Technology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Vijay K Sharma
- Mycopathology and Microbial Technology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Jitendra Kumar
- Mycopathology and Microbial Technology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Ashish Mishra
- Mycopathology and Microbial Technology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Satish K Verma
- Mycopathology and Microbial Technology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Thomas N Sieber
- ETH Zurich, Institute of Integrative Biology, Forest Pathology and Dendrology, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ravindra N Kharwar
- Mycopathology and Microbial Technology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, 221005, India.
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Navrátilová D, Větrovský T, Baldrian P. Spatial heterogeneity of cellulolytic activity and fungal communities within individual decomposing Quercus petraea leaves. FUNGAL ECOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2016.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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10
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Noumeur SR, Helaly SE, Jansen R, Gereke M, Stradal TEB, Harzallah D, Stadler M. Preussilides A-F, Bicyclic Polyketides from the Endophytic Fungus Preussia similis with Antiproliferative Activity. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2017; 80:1531-1540. [PMID: 28398049 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Six novel bioactive bicyclic polyketides (1-6) were isolated from cultures of an endophytic fungus of the medicinal plant Globularia alypum collected in Batna, Algeria. The producer organism was identified as Preussia similis using morphological and molecular phylogenetic methods. The structures of metabolites 1-6, for which the trivial names preussilides A-F are proposed, were elucidated using a combination of spectral methods, including extensive 2D NMR spectroscopy, high-resolution mass spectrometry, and CD spectroscopy. Preussilides were tested for antimicrobial and antiproliferative effects, and, in particular, compounds 1 and 3 showed selective activities against eukaryotes. Subsequent studies on the influence of 1 and 3 on the morphology of human osteosarcoma cells (U2OS) suggest that these two polyketides might target an enzyme involved in coordination of the cell division cycle. Hence, they might, for instance, affect timing or spindle assembly mechanisms, leading to defects in chromosome segregation and/or spindle geometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara R Noumeur
- Department of Microbial Drugs, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) , partner site Hannover/Braunschweig, Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, University Sétif 1 Ferhat Abbas , 19000 Sétif, Algeria
- Department of Microbiology-Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, University of Batna 2 , 05000 Batna, Algeria
| | - Soleiman E Helaly
- Department of Microbial Drugs, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) , partner site Hannover/Braunschweig, Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Aswan University , 81528 Aswan, Egypt
| | - Rolf Jansen
- Department of Microbial Drugs, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) , partner site Hannover/Braunschweig, Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Marcus Gereke
- Department of Cell Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Theresia E B Stradal
- Department of Cell Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Daoud Harzallah
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, University Sétif 1 Ferhat Abbas , 19000 Sétif, Algeria
| | - Marc Stadler
- Department of Microbial Drugs, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) , partner site Hannover/Braunschweig, Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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11
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Arnold AE, Henk DA, Eells RL, Lutzoni F, Vilgalys R. Diversity and phylogenetic affinities of foliar fungal endophytes in loblolly pine inferred by culturing and environmental PCR. Mycologia 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/15572536.2007.11832578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Rytas Vilgalys
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
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12
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Rojas EI, Herre EA, Mejía LC, Arnold AE, Chaverri P, Samuels GJ. Endomelanconiopsis, a new anamorph genus in the Botryosphaeriaceae. Mycologia 2017; 100:760-75. [DOI: 10.3852/07-207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Edward Allen Herre
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado Postal 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancon, Republic of Panama
| | - Luis C. Mejía
- Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, 59 Dudley Road, Foran Hall, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
| | - A. Elizabeth Arnold
- Division of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Priscila Chaverri
- Department of Biology, Howard University, 415 College Street NW, Washington D.C. 20059
| | - Gary J. Samuels
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, Systematic Mycology & Microbiology Laboratory, B-011A, Room 304, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, Maryland 20705
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Higgins KL, Coley PD, Kursar TA, Arnold AE. Culturing and direct PCR suggest prevalent host generalism among diverse fungal endophytes of tropical forest grasses. Mycologia 2017; 103:247-60. [DOI: 10.3852/09-158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Thomas A. Kursar
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
| | - A. Elizabeth Arnold
- Division of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
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14
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Rojas EI, Rehner SA, Samuels GJ, Van Bael SA, Herre EA, Cannon P, Chen R, Pang J, Wang R, Zhang Y, Peng YQ, Sha T. Colletotrichum gloeosporioidess.l. associated withTheobroma cacaoand other plants in Panamá: multilocus phylogenies distinguish host-associated pathogens from asymptomatic endophytes. Mycologia 2017; 102:1318-38. [DOI: 10.3852/09-244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gary J. Samuels
- USDA-ARS, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | | | - Edward A. Herre
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 0843-03092, Republic of Panamá
| | - Paul Cannon
- CABI, Bakeham Lane, Egham, TW20 9TY, UK and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, UK
| | | | | | | | - Yaping Zhang
- State Key Laboratories, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yan-Qiong Peng
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xinshiabanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tao Sha
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, People’s Republic of China
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15
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Romão-Dumaresq AS, Dourado MN, Fávaro LCDL, Mendes R, Ferreira A, Araújo WL. Diversity of Cultivated Fungi Associated with Conventional and Transgenic Sugarcane and the Interaction between Endophytic Trichoderma virens and the Host Plant. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158974. [PMID: 27415014 PMCID: PMC4944904 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant-associated fungi are considered a vast source for biotechnological processes whose potential has been poorly explored. The interactions and diversity of sugarcane, one of the most important crops in Brazil, have been rarely studied, mainly concerning fungal communities and their interactions with transgenic plants. Taking this into consideration, the purpose of this study was, based on culture dependent strategy, to determine the structure and diversity of the fungal community (root endophytes and rhizosphere) associated with two varieties of sugarcane, a non-genetically modified (SP80-1842) variety and its genetically modified counterpart (IMI-1, expressing imazapyr herbicide resistance). For this, the sugarcane varieties were evaluated in three sampling times (3, 10 and 17 months after planting) under two crop management (weeding and herbicide treatments). In addition, a strain of Trichoderma virens, an endophyte isolated from sugarcane with great potential as a biological control, growth promotion and enzyme production agent, was selected for the fungal-plant interaction assays. The results of the isolation, characterization and evaluation of fungal community changes showed that the sugarcane fungal community is composed of at least 35 different genera, mostly in the phylum Ascomycota. Many genera are observed at very low frequencies among a few most abundant genera, some of which were isolated from specific plant sites (e.g., the roots or the rhizosphere). An assessment of the possible effects upon the fungal community showed that the plant growth stage was the only factor that significantly affected the community's structure. Moreover, if transgenic effects are present, they may be minor compared to other natural sources of variation. The results of interaction studies using the Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing T. virens strain T.v.223 revealed that this fungus did not promote any phenotypic changes in the host plant and was found mostly in the roots where it formed a dense mycelial cover and was able to penetrate the intercellular spaces of the root epidermis upper layers. The ability of T. virens to colonize plant roots suggests a potential for protecting plant health, inhibiting pathogens or inducing systemic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Silva Romão-Dumaresq
- Department of Genetics, Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”(ESALQ), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Manuella Nóbrega Dourado
- Department of Genetics, Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”(ESALQ), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Microbial Ecology, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Léia Cecilia de Lima Fávaro
- Department of Genetics, Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”(ESALQ), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Embrapa Agroenergy, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Mendes
- Department of Genetics, Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”(ESALQ), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Embrapa Environment, Jaguariuna, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anderson Ferreira
- Department of Genetics, Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”(ESALQ), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Embrapa Agrosilvopastoral, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil
| | - Welington Luiz Araújo
- Department of Genetics, Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”(ESALQ), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Microbial Ecology, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Card S, Johnson L, Teasdale S, Caradus J. Deciphering endophyte behaviour: the link between endophyte biology and efficacious biological control agents. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2016; 92:fiw114. [PMID: 27222223 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiw114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Endophytes associate with the majority of plant species found in natural and managed ecosystems. They are regarded as extremely important plant partners that provide improved stress tolerance to the host compared with plants that lack this symbiosis. Fossil records of endophytes date back more than 400 million years, implicating these microorganisms in host plant adaptation to habitat transitions. However, it is only recently that endophytes, and their bioactive products, have received meaningful attention from the scientific community. The benefits some endophytes can confer on their hosts include plant growth promotion and survival through the inhibition of pathogenic microorganisms and invertebrate pests, the removal of soil contaminants, improved tolerance of low fertility soils, and increased tolerance of extreme temperatures and low water availability. Endophytes are extremely diverse and can exhibit many different biological behaviours. Not all endophyte technologies have been successfully commercialised. Of interest in the development of the next generation of plant protection products is how much of this is due to the biology of the particular endophytic microorganism. In this review, we highlight selected case studies of endophytes and discuss their lifestyles and behavioural traits, and discuss how these factors contribute towards their effectiveness as biological control agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Card
- AgResearch Limited, Grasslands Research Centre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
| | - Linda Johnson
- AgResearch Limited, Grasslands Research Centre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
| | - Suliana Teasdale
- AgResearch Limited, Grasslands Research Centre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
| | - John Caradus
- Grasslanz Technology Limited, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
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Arendt KR, Hockett KL, Araldi-Brondolo SJ, Baltrus DA, Arnold AE. Isolation of Endohyphal Bacteria from Foliar Ascomycota and In Vitro Establishment of Their Symbiotic Associations. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:2943-2949. [PMID: 26969692 PMCID: PMC4959084 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00452-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Endohyphal bacteria (EHB) can influence fungal phenotypes and shape the outcomes of plant-fungal interactions. Previous work has suggested that EHB form facultative associations with many foliar fungi in the Ascomycota. These bacteria can be isolated in culture, and fungi can be cured of EHB using antibiotics. Here, we present methods for successfully introducing EHB into axenic mycelia of strains representing two classes of Ascomycota. We first establish in vitro conditions favoring reintroduction of two strains of EHB (Luteibacter sp.) into axenic cultures of their original fungal hosts, focusing on fungi isolated from healthy plant tissue as endophytes: Microdiplodia sp. (Dothideomycetes) and Pestalotiopsis sp. (Sordariomycetes). We then demonstrate that these EHB can be introduced into a novel fungal host under the same conditions, successfully transferring EHB between fungi representing different classes. Finally, we manipulate conditions to optimize reintroduction in a focal EHB-fungal association. We show that EHB infections were initiated and maintained more often under low-nutrient culture conditions and when EHB and fungal hyphae were washed with MgCl2 prior to reassociation. Our study provides new methods for experimental assessment of the effects of EHB on fungal phenotypes and shows how the identity of the fungal host and growth conditions can define the establishment of these widespread and important symbioses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla R Arendt
- School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Kevin L Hockett
- School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | | | - David A Baltrus
- School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - A Elizabeth Arnold
- School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
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Fernandes EG, Pereira OL, da Silva CC, Bento CBP, de Queiroz MV. Diversity of endophytic fungi in Glycine max. Microbiol Res 2015; 181:84-92. [PMID: 26111593 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2015.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2015] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Endophytic fungi are microorganisms that live within plant tissues without causing disease during part of their life cycle. With the isolation and identification of these fungi, new species are being discovered, and ecological relationships with their hosts have also been studied. In Glycine max, limited studies have investigated the isolation and distribution of endophytic fungi throughout leaves and roots. The distribution of these fungi in various plant organs differs in diversity and abundance, even when analyzed using molecular techniques that can evaluate fungal communities in different parts of the plants, such as denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Our results show there is greater species richness of culturable endophytic filamentous fungi in the leaves G. max as compared to roots. Additionally, the leaves had high values for diversity indices, i.e. Simpsons, Shannon and Equitability. Conversely, dominance index was higher in roots as compared to leaves. The fungi Ampelomyces sp., Cladosporium cladosporioides, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Diaporthe helianthi, Guignardia mangiferae and Phoma sp. were more frequently isolated from the leaves, whereas the fungi Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani and Fusarium sp. were prevalent in the roots. However, by evaluating the two communities by DGGE, we concluded that the species richness was higher in the roots than in the leaves. UPGMA analysis showed consistent clustering of isolates; however, the fungus Leptospora rubella, which belongs to the order Dothideales, was grouped among species of the order Pleosporales. The presence of endophytic Fusarium species in G. max roots is unsurprising, since Fusarium spp. isolates have been previously described as endophyte in other reports. However, it remains to be determined whether the G. max Fusarium endophytes are latent pathogens or non-pathogenic forms that benefit the plant. This study provides a broader knowledge of the distribution of the fungal community in G. max leaves and roots, and identifies the genetic relationships among the isolated species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elio Gomes Fernandes
- Departamento de Microbiologia - Bioagro, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Av. PH Rolfs s/n, Campus Universitário, CEP 36570 900 Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | - Olinto Liparini Pereira
- Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Av. PH Rolfs s/n, Campus Universitário, CEP 36570 900 Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | - Cynthia Cânedo da Silva
- Departamento de Microbiologia - Bioagro, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Av. PH Rolfs s/n, Campus Universitário, CEP 36570 900 Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | - Claudia Braga Pereira Bento
- Departamento de Microbiologia - Bioagro, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Av. PH Rolfs s/n, Campus Universitário, CEP 36570 900 Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | - Marisa Vieira de Queiroz
- Departamento de Microbiologia - Bioagro, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Av. PH Rolfs s/n, Campus Universitário, CEP 36570 900 Viçosa, MG, Brazil.
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Chen KH, Miadlikowska J, Molnár K, Arnold AE, U'Ren JM, Gaya E, Gueidan C, Lutzoni F. Phylogenetic analyses of eurotiomycetous endophytes reveal their close affinities to Chaetothyriales, Eurotiales, and a new order - Phaeomoniellales. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015; 85:117-30. [PMID: 25701073 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2015.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Revised: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Symbiotic fungi living in plants as endophytes, and in lichens as endolichenic fungi, cause no apparent symptoms to their hosts. They are ubiquitous, ecologically important, hyperdiverse, and represent a rich source of secondary compounds for new pharmaceutical and biocontrol products. Due in part to the lack of visible reproductive structures and other distinctive phenotypic traits for many species, the diversity and phylogenetic affiliations of these cryptic fungi are often poorly known. The goal of this study was to determine the phylogenetic placement of representative endophytes within the Eurotiomycetes (Pezizomycotina, Ascomycota), one of the most diverse and evolutionarily dynamic fungal classes, and to use that information to infer processes of macroevolution in trophic modes. Sequences of a single locus marker spanning the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region (nrITS) and 600 base pairs at the 5' end of the nuclear ribosomal large subunit (nrLSU) were obtained from previous studies of >6000 endophytic and endolichenic fungi from diverse biogeographic locations and hosts. We conducted phylum-wide phylogenetic searches using this marker to determine which fungal strains belonged to Eurotiomycetes and the results were used as the basis for a class-wide, seven-locus phylogenetic study focusing on endophytic and endolichenic Eurotiomycetes. Our cumulative supermatrix-based analyses revealed that representative endophytes within Eurotiomycetes are distributed in three main clades: Eurotiales, Chaetothyriales and Phaeomoniellales ord. nov., a clade that had not yet been described formally. This new order, described herein, is sister to the clade including Verrucariales and Chaetothyriales. It appears to consist mainly of endophytes and plant pathogens. Morphological characters of endophytic Phaeomoniellales resemble those of the pathogenic genus Phaeomoniella. This study highlights the capacity of endophytic and endolichenic fungi to expand our understanding of the ecological modes associated with particular clades, and provides a first estimation of their phylogenetic relationships in the Eurotiomycetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko-Hsuan Chen
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
| | | | - Katalin Molnár
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - A Elizabeth Arnold
- School of Plant Sciences and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Jana M U'Ren
- School of Plant Sciences and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Ester Gaya
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Cécile Gueidan
- Australia National Herbarium, CSIRO, GPO Box 1600, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
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Saucedo-García A, Anaya AL, Espinosa-García FJ, González MC. Diversity and communities of foliar endophytic fungi from different agroecosystems of Coffea arabica L. in two regions of Veracruz, Mexico. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98454. [PMID: 24887512 PMCID: PMC4041768 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past 20 years, the biodiversity associated with shaded coffee plantations and the role of diverse agroforestry types in biodiversity conservation and environmental services have been topics of debate. Endophytic fungi, which are microorganisms that inhabit plant tissues in an asymptomatic manner, form a part of the biodiversity associated with coffee plants. Studies on the endophytic fungi communities of cultivable host plants have shown variability among farming regions; however, the variability in fungal endophytic communities of coffee plants among different coffee agroforestry systems is still poorly understood. As such, we analyzed the diversity and communities of foliar endophytic fungi inhabiting Coffea arabica plants growing in the rustic plantations and simple polycultures of two regions in the center of Veracruz, Mexico. The endophytic fungi isolates were identified by their morphological traits, and the majority of identified species correspond to species of fungi previously reported as endophytes of coffee leaves. We analyzed and compared the colonization rates, diversity, and communities of endophytes found in the different agroforestry systems and in the different regions. Although the endophytic diversity was not fully recovered, we found differences in the abundance and diversity of endophytes among the coffee regions and differences in richness between the two different agroforestry systems of each region. No consistent pattern of community similarity was found between the coffee agroforestry systems, but we found that rustic plantations shared the highest number of morphospecies. The results suggest that endophyte abundance, richness, diversity, and communities may be influenced predominantly by coffee region, and to a lesser extent, by the agroforestry system. Our results contribute to the knowledge of the relationships between agroforestry systems and biodiversity conservation and provide information regarding some endophytic fungi and their communities as potential management tools against coffee plant pests and pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora Saucedo-García
- Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Distrito Federal, México
- Departamento de Ecología Funcional, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Distrito Federal, México
| | - Ana Luisa Anaya
- Departamento de Ecología Funcional, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Distrito Federal, México
| | - Francisco J. Espinosa-García
- Laboratorio de Ecología Química, Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Morelia, Michoacán, México
| | - María C. González
- Departamento de Botánica, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Distrito Federal, México
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Sandberg DC, Battista LJ, Arnold AE. Fungal endophytes of aquatic macrophytes: diverse host-generalists characterized by tissue preferences and geographic structure. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2014; 67:735-47. [PMID: 24402358 PMCID: PMC3988250 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-013-0324-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Most studies of endophytic symbionts have focused on terrestrial plants, neglecting the ecologically and economically important plants present in aquatic ecosystems. We evaluated the diversity, composition, host and tissue affiliations, and geographic structure of fungal endophytes associated with common aquatic plants in lentic waters in northern Arizona, USA. Endophytes were isolated in culture from roots and photosynthetic tissues during two growing seasons. A total of 226 isolates representing 60 putative species was recovered from 9,600 plant tissue segments. Although isolation frequency was low, endophytes were phylogenetically diverse and species-rich. Comparisons among the most thoroughly sampled species and reservoirs revealed that isolation frequency and diversity did not differ significantly between collection periods, among species, among reservoirs, or as a function of depth. However, community structure differed significantly among reservoirs and tissue types. Phylogenetic analyses of a focal genus (Penicillium) corroborated estimates of species boundaries and informed community analyses, highlighting clade- and genotype-level affiliations of aquatic endophytes with both sediment- and waterborne fungi, and endophytes of proximate terrestrial plants. Together these analyses provide a first quantitative examination of endophytic associations in roots and foliage of aquatic plants and can be used to optimize survey strategies for efficiently capturing fungal biodiversity at local and regional scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin C. Sandberg
- School of Plant Sciences, 1140 E South Campus Drive, Forbes 303, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA
| | - Lorna J. Battista
- School of Plant Sciences, 1140 E South Campus Drive, Forbes 303, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA
| | - A. Elizabeth Arnold
- School of Plant Sciences, 1140 E South Campus Drive, Forbes 303, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA
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U'Ren JM, Riddle JM, Monacell JT, Carbone I, Miadlikowska J, Arnold AE. Tissue storage and primer selection influence pyrosequencing-based inferences of diversity and community composition of endolichenic and endophytic fungi. Mol Ecol Resour 2014; 14:1032-48. [PMID: 24628864 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Next-generation sequencing technologies have provided unprecedented insights into fungal diversity and ecology. However, intrinsic biases and insufficient quality control in next-generation methods can lead to difficult-to-detect errors in estimating fungal community richness, distributions and composition. The aim of this study was to examine how tissue storage prior to DNA extraction, primer design and various quality-control approaches commonly used in 454 amplicon pyrosequencing might influence ecological inferences in studies of endophytic and endolichenic fungi. We first contrast 454 data sets generated contemporaneously from subsets of the same plant and lichen tissues that were stored in CTAB buffer, dried in silica gel or freshly frozen prior to DNA extraction. We show that storage in silica gel markedly limits the recovery of sequence data and yields a small fraction of the diversity observed by the other two methods. Using lichen mycobiont sequences as internal positive controls, we next show that despite careful filtering of raw reads and utilization of current best-practice OTU clustering methods, homopolymer errors in sequences representing rare taxa artificially increased estimates of richness c. 15-fold in a model data set. Third, we show that inferences regarding endolichenic diversity can be improved using a novel primer that reduces amplification of the mycobiont. Together, our results provide a rationale for selecting tissue treatment regimes prior to DNA extraction, demonstrate the efficacy of reducing mycobiont amplification in studies of the fungal microbiomes of lichen thalli and highlight the difficulties in differentiating true information about fungal biodiversity from methodological artefacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana M U'Ren
- School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
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Higgins KL, Arnold AE, Coley PD, Kursar TA. Communities of fungal endophytes in tropical forest grasses: highly diverse host- and habitat generalists characterized by strong spatial structure. FUNGAL ECOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2013.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Communities of anamorphic fungi on green leaves and leaf litter of native forests of Scutia buxifolia and Celtis tala: Composition, diversity, seasonality and substrate specificity. Rev Iberoam Micol 2014; 32:71-8. [PMID: 24657543 DOI: 10.1016/j.riam.2013.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xeric forests dominated by two tree species, Scutia buxifolia (Rhamnaceae) and Celtis tala (Ulmacea), are temperate, semi-deciduous wooded communities that represent the most abundant woodlands on the eastern plains of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. The district of Magdalena has one of the most well-preserved native-forest areas, with an environmental heterogeneity that gives rise to the wide variability in the vegetation present. AIMS The aim of this study was to analyze the species composition, diversity, seasonal variations, and substrate specificity of anamorphic fungi (Ascomycota) on the green leaves and in the leaf litter of native forests dominated by Scutia buxifolia and Celtis tala from Magdalena, Buenos Aires, Argentina. METHODS In order to obtain the mycobiota of decomposition, seasonal samples of green leaves and leaf litter from both types of trees were collected over a two-year period. In the laboratory, the leaves were placed in a moist chamber and incubated at room temperature. RESULTS A total of 100 species of anamorphic Ascomycota were identified in both forests. No significant variations were observed in the richness, diversity, or evenness of the fungal communities of the green leaves and leaf litter of both forests between seasons. CONCLUSIONS The species that characterized the fungal communities in the leaves of each of the trees were found to be different. The type of substrate had a stronger influence in determining the composition of the fungal community in both types of forests.
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Del Olmo-Ruiz M, Arnold AE. Interannual variation and host affiliations of endophytic fungi associated with ferns at La Selva, Costa Rica. Mycologia 2014; 106:8-21. [PMID: 24459121 DOI: 10.3852/13-098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Ferns are an ancient and diverse lineage of vascular plants that differ morphologically, chemically and in growth habits from the angiosperms with which they co-occur. We used a culture-based approach coupled with phylogenetic analyses to characterize the incidence, diversity and composition of fungal endophyte assemblages in ferns, with a focus on healthy aboveground tissues of seven species of eupolypods at La Selva, Costa Rica. Endophytes were isolated from every individual plant and were similarly abundant and diverse in frond blades and stalks, in different vegetation types, in epiphytic vs. terrestrial species, and between sampling years. However, abundance, diversity and community structure differed significantly among fern species, and composition differed markedly between sampling years. Phylogenetic classification using separate and combined datasets revealed that as for many Neotropical angiosperms, the majority (95%) of endophyte taxa were Ascomycota, with particular dominance by Sordariomycetes, Eurotiomycetes and Dothideomycetes. However, our data suggest higher phylogenetic richness and stronger host affinities in fern associated endophytes relative to those studied in angiosperms thus far.
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Endophytic fungi from the Amazonian plant Paullinia cupana and from Olea europaea isolated using cassava as an alternative starch media source. SPRINGERPLUS 2013; 2:579. [PMID: 25674409 PMCID: PMC4320186 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-2-579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Endophytic fungi live inside plants, apparently do not cause any harm to their hosts and may play important roles in defense and growth promotion. Fungal growth is a routine practice at microbiological laboratories, and the Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) is the most frequently used medium because it is a rich source of starch. However, the production of potatoes in some regions of the world can be costly. Aiming the development of a new medium source to tropical countries, in the present study, we used leaves from the guarana (a tropical plant from the Amazon region) and the olive (which grows in subtropical and temperate regions) to isolate endophytic fungi using PDA and Manihot Dextrose Agar (MDA). Cassava (Manihot esculenta) was evaluated as a substitute starch source. For guarana, the endophytic incidence (EI) was 90% and 98% on PDA and MDA media, respectively, and 65% and 70% for olive, respectively. The fungal isolates were sequenced using the ITS- rDNA region. The fungal identification demonstrated that the isolates varied according to the host plant and media source. In the guarana plant, 13 fungal genera were found using MDA and six were found using PDA. In the olive plant, six genera were obtained using PDA and 4 were obtained using MDA. The multivariate analysis results demonstrated the highest fungal diversity from guarana when using MDA medium. Interestingly, some genera were isolated from one specific host or in one specific media, suggesting the importance of these two factors in fungal isolation specificity. Thus, this study indicated that cassava is a feasible starch source that could serve as a potential alternative medium to potato medium.
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Lau MK, Arnold AE, Johnson NC. Factors influencing communities of foliar fungal endophytes in riparian woody plants. FUNGAL ECOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Hoffman MT, Gunatilaka MK, Wijeratne K, Gunatilaka L, Arnold AE. Endohyphal bacterium enhances production of indole-3-acetic acid by a foliar fungal endophyte. PLoS One 2013; 8:e73132. [PMID: 24086270 PMCID: PMC3782478 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous plant pathogens, rhizosphere symbionts, and endophytic bacteria and yeasts produce the important phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), often with profound effects on host plants. However, to date IAA production has not been documented among foliar endophytes -- the diverse guild of primarily filamentous Ascomycota that live within healthy, above-ground tissues of all plant species studied thus far. Recently bacteria that live within hyphae of endophytes (endohyphal bacteria) have been detected, but their effects have not been studied previously. Here we show not only that IAA is produced in vitro by a foliar endophyte (here identified as Pestalotiopsis aff. neglecta, Xylariales), but that IAA production is enhanced significantly when the endophyte hosts an endohyphal bacterium (here identified as Luteibacter sp., Xanthomonadales). Both the endophyte and the endophyte/bacterium complex appear to rely on an L-tryptophan dependent pathway for IAA synthesis. The bacterium can be isolated from the fungus when the symbiotic complex is cultivated at 36°C. In pure culture the bacterium does not produce IAA. Culture filtrate from the endophyte-bacterium complex significantly enhances growth of tomato in vitro relative to controls and to filtrate from the endophyte alone. Together these results speak to a facultative symbiosis between an endophyte and endohyphal bacterium that strongly influences IAA production, providing a new framework in which to explore endophyte-plant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele T. Hoffman
- School of Plant Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Malkanthi K. Gunatilaka
- School of Plant Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Kithsiri Wijeratne
- Southwest Center for Natural Products Research and Commercialization, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Leslie Gunatilaka
- Southwest Center for Natural Products Research and Commercialization, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - A. Elizabeth Arnold
- School of Plant Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Impact of environmental variables on the isolation, diversity and antibacterial activity of endophytic fungal communities from Madhuca indica Gmel. at different locations in India. ANN MICROBIOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s13213-013-0707-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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Giauque H, Hawkes CV. Climate affects symbiotic fungal endophyte diversity and performance. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2013; 100:1435-44. [PMID: 23813587 DOI: 10.3732/ajb.1200568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY Fungal endophytes are symbionts that inhabit aboveground tissues of most terrestrial plants and can affect plant physiology and growth under stressed conditions. In a future faced with substantial climate change, endophytes have the potential to play an important role in plant stress resistance. Understanding both the distributions of endophytes and their functioning in symbiosis with plants are key aspects of predicting their role in an altered climate. METHODS Here we characterized endophytes in grasses across a steep precipitation gradient to examine the relative importance of environmental and spatial factors in structuring endophyte communities. We also tested how 20 endophytes isolated from drier and wetter regions performed in symbiosis with grass seedlings under high and low soil moisture in the greenhouse. KEY RESULTS Environmental factors related to historical and current precipitation were the most important predictors of endophyte communities in the field. On average, endophytic fungi from western sites also reduced plant water loss in the greenhouse compared to fungi from eastern sites. However, there was substantial variability in how individual endophytic taxa affected plant traits under high and low water availability, with up to two orders of magnitude difference in the plasticity of plant traits conferred by the different fungal taxa. CONCLUSIONS While species sorting appears to largely explain local endophyte community composition, their function in symbiosis is not predictable from local environmental conditions. The development of a predictive framework for endophyte function will require further study of individual fungal taxa and genotypes across environmental gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Giauque
- Section of Integrative Biology, 1 University Station, C0930, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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Ek-Ramos MJ, Zhou W, Valencia CU, Antwi JB, Kalns LL, Morgan GD, Kerns DL, Sword GA. Spatial and temporal variation in fungal endophyte communities isolated from cultivated cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). PLoS One 2013; 8:e66049. [PMID: 23776604 PMCID: PMC3679028 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of fungi in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) cultivated in the United States have largely focused on monitoring and controlling plant pathogens. Given increasing interest in asymptomatic fungal endophytes as potential biological control agents, surveys are needed to better characterize their diversity, distribution patterns and possible applications in integrated pest management. We sampled multiple varieties of cotton in Texas, USA and tested for temporal and spatial variation in fungal endophyte diversity and community composition, as well as for differences associated with organic and conventional farming practices. Fungal isolates were identified by morphological and DNA identification methods. We found members of the genera Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Phomopsis, previously isolated as endophytes from other plant species. Other recovered species such as Drechslerella dactyloides (formerly Arthrobotrys dactyloides) and Exserohilum rostratum have not, to our knowledge, been previously reported as endophytes in cotton. We also isolated many latent pathogens, but some species such as Alternaria tennuissima, Epicoccum nigrum, Acremonium alternatum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Chaetomium globosum and Paecilomyces sp., are known to be antagonists against plant pathogens, insects and nematode pests. We found no differences in endophyte species richness or diversity among different cotton varieties, but did detect differences over time and in different plant tissues. No consistent patterns of community similarity associated with variety, region, farming practice, time of the season or tissue type were observed regardless of the ecological community similarity measurements used. Results indicated that local fungal endophyte communities may be affected by both time of the year and plant tissue, but the specific community composition varies across sites. In addition to providing insights into fungal endophyte community structure, our survey provides candidates for further evaluation as potential management tools against a variety of pests and diseases when present as endophytes in cotton and other plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- María J Ek-Ramos
- Department of Entomology, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America.
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Factors shaping community structure of endophytic fungi–evidence from the Pinus-Viscum-system. FUNGAL DIVERS 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s13225-013-0225-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Langenfeld A, Prado S, Nay B, Cruaud C, Lacoste S, Bury E, Hachette F, Hosoya T, Dupont J. Geographic locality greatly influences fungal endophyte communities in Cephalotaxus harringtonia. Fungal Biol 2013; 117:124-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2012.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Revised: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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de Souza Leite T, Cnossen-Fassoni A, Pereira OL, Mizubuti ESG, de Araújo EF, de Queiroz MV. Novel and highly diverse fungal endophytes in soybean revealed by the consortium of two different techniques. J Microbiol 2013; 51:56-69. [PMID: 23456713 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-013-2356-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Fungal endophytes were isolated from the leaves of soybean cultivars in Brazil using two different isolation techniques - fragment plating and the innovative dilution-to-extinction culturing - to increase the species richness, frequency of isolates and diversity. A total of 241 morphospecies were obtained corresponding to 62 taxa that were identified by analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA). The Phylum Ascomycota predominated, representing 99% and 95.2% of isolates in the Monsoy and Conquista cultivars, respectively, whereas the Phylum Basidiomycota represented 1% and 4.8% of isolates, respectively. The genera Ampelomyces, Annulohypoxylon, Guignardia, Leptospora, Magnaporthe, Ophiognomonia, Paraconiothyrium, Phaeosphaeriopsis, Rhodotorula, Sporobolomyces, and Xylaria for the first time were isolated from soybean; this suggests that soybean harbours novel and highly diverse fungi. The yeasts genera Rhodotorula and Sporobolomyces (subphylum Pucciniomycotina) represent the Phylum Basidiomycota. The species richness was greater when both isolation techniques were used. The diversity of fungal endophytes was similar in both cultivars when the same isolation technique was used except for Hill's index, N1. The use of ITS region sequences allowed the isolates to be grouped according to Order, Class and Phylum. Ampelomyces, Chaetomium, and Phoma glomerata are endophytic species that may play potential roles in the biological control of soybean pathogens. This study is one of the first to apply extinction-culturing to isolate fungal endophytes in plant leaves, thus contributing to the development and improvement of this technique for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago de Souza Leite
- Department of Microbiology/Institute of Microbiology Applied to Agriculture and Livestock Raising (BIOAGRO), Laboratory of Microorganism Molecular Genetics, Vicosa, Brazil
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Schreeg LA, Mack MC, Turner BL. Nutrient-specific solubility patterns of leaf litter across 41 lowland tropical woody species. Ecology 2013; 94:94-105. [DOI: 10.1890/11-1958.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Baynes MA, Russell DM, Newcombe G, Carta LK, Rossman AY, Ismaiel A. A mutualistic interaction between a fungivorous nematode and a fungus within the endophytic community of Bromus tectorum. FUNGAL ECOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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The diversity, antimicrobial and anticancer activity of endophytic fungi associated with the medicinal plant Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville (Fabaceae) from the Brazilian savannah. Symbiosis 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-012-0182-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Kharwar RN, Maurya AL, Verma VC, Kumar A, Gond SK, Mishra A. Diversity and Antimicrobial Activity of Endophytic Fungal Community Isolated from Medicinal Plant Cinnamomum camphora. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s40011-012-0063-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Spatio-temporal dynamics of endophyte diversity in the canopy of European ash (Fraxinus excelsior). Mycol Prog 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11557-012-0835-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Linnakoski R, Puhakka-tarvainen H, Pappinen A. Endophytic fungi isolated from Khaya anthotheca in Ghana. FUNGAL ECOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2011.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Unterseher M, Petzold A, Schnittler M. Xerotolerant foliar endophytic fungi of Populus euphratica from the Tarim River basin, Central China are conspecific to endophytic ITS phylotypes of Populus tremula from temperate Europe. FUNGAL DIVERS 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s13225-012-0167-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Scaling down the analysis of environmental processes: monitoring enzyme activity in natural substrates on a millimeter resolution scale. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:3473-5. [PMID: 22389368 DOI: 10.1128/aem.07953-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural environments often show high levels of spatial heterogeneity. With a methodology based on the immobilization of fluorescent substrates, the distribution of extracellular enzymes can be studied at a 2.3-mm resolution with a detection limit of 1.8 nmol · h(-1) · cm(-2). The method is applicable to environmental samples such as wood, litter, soil, or fungal colonies.
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Recognition and characterization of four Thai xylariaceous fungi inhabiting various tropical foliages as endophytes by DNA sequences and host plant preference. MYCOSCIENCE 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10267-011-0149-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Ma C, Jiang D, Wei X. Mutation breeding of Emericella foeniculicola TR21 for improved production of tanshinone IIA. Process Biochem 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2011.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Chaverri P, Gazis RO. Linking ex planta fungi with their endophytic stages: Perisporiopsis, a common leaf litter and soil fungus, is a frequent endophyte of Hevea spp. and other plants. FUNGAL ECOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2010.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Porras-Alfaro A, Bayman P. Hidden fungi, emergent properties: endophytes and microbiomes. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2011; 49:291-315. [PMID: 19400639 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-080508-081831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 425] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Endophytes are microorganisms that live within plant tissues without causing symptoms of disease. They are important components of plant microbiomes. Endophytes interact with, and overlap in function with, other core microbial groups that colonize plant tissues, e.g., mycorrhizal fungi, pathogens, epiphytes, and saprotrophs. Some fungal endophytes affect plant growth and plant responses to pathogens, herbivores, and environmental change; others produce useful or interesting secondary metabolites. Here, we focus on new techniques and approaches that can provide an integrative understanding of the role of fungal endophytes in the plant microbiome. Clavicipitaceous endophytes of grasses are not considered because they have unique properties distinct from other endophytes. Hidden from view and often overlooked, endophytes are emerging as their diversity, importance for plant growth and survival, and interactions with other organisms are revealed.
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Unterseher M, Schnittler M. Species richness analysis and ITS rDNA phylogeny revealed the majority of cultivable foliar endophytes from beech (Fagus sylvatica). FUNGAL ECOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2010.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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