Gold Nanoraspberries for Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering: Synthesis, Optimization, and Characterization

In this work, we demonstrate the synthesis of gold nanoraspberries (AuNRB) using a HEPES buffer at room temperature. The study aimed to identify and compare the physicochemical conditions of the AuNRB and gold nanospheres (AuNS) of similar size to a selected set of reporter molecules. The dispersion stability of shape-controlled and AuNS of similar diameters was investigated in three different physiological media, ultrapure water, phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and fetal bovine serum (FBS), and compared to understand the effect of NP shape, dispersion stability, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) enhancement. We have used two nonresonant reporters, trans-1,2-bis(4-pyridyl) ethylene (BPE) and biphenyl-4-thiol (BPT), and a resonant reporter, IR820 (also known as new indocyanine green), a clinically approved dye for diagnostic studies, to explore the relative benefit of using molecular electronic resonance, i.e., comparing SERS vs surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERRS) with these nanoparticles. SERS has been explored extensively for biomedical applications, but the synthesis of bright gold nanoparticles and the appropriate Raman label is still challenging. To understand and optimize the SERS process, we have characterized both types of gold nanoparticles, ranging from their average size, ζ-potential, and ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) absorption. It has been found that AuNRB and AuNS are most stable when dispersed in ultrapure water, while significant aggregation of both types has been observed when dispersed in PBS. With 10% FBS, there was a slight shift and increase in the surface plasmon absorbance peak, which resulted from an increase in particle size due to protein corona formation around the gold nanoparticles. For SERS efficiency, it has been found that AuNRB outperform AuNS with all reporters. Further, the resonant reporter, IR820, has provided a higher SERS signal compared to BPE and BPT and with its FDA approval for clinical use is clearly a strong candidate for future in vivo application.

(Nano)biotechnological approaches in the treatment of cervical cancer: integration of engineering and biology

Cervical cancer is one of the most malignant gynaecological tumors characterised with the aggressive behaviour of the tumor cells. In spite of the development of different strategies for the treatment of cervical cancer, the tumor cells have developed resistance to conventional therapeutics. On the other hand, nanoparticles have been recently applied for the treatment of human cancers through delivery of drugs and facilitate tumor suppression. The stimuli-sensitive nanostructures can improve the release of therapeutics at the tumor site. In the present review, the nanostructures for the treatment of cervical cancer are discussed. Nanostructures can deliver both chemotherapy drugs and natural compounds to increase anti-cancer activity and prevent drug resistance in cervical tumor. Moreover, the genetic tools such as siRNA can be delivered by nanoparticles to enhance their accumulation at tumor site. In order to enhance selectivity, the stimuli-responsive nanoparticles such as pH- and redox-responsive nanocarriers have been developed to suppress cervical tumor. Moreover, nanoparticles can induce photo-thermal and photodynamic therapy to accelerate cell death in cervical tumor. In addition, nanobiotechnology demonstrates tremendous potential in the treatment of cervical cancer, especially in the context of tumor immunotherapy. Overall, metal-, carbon-, lipid- and polymer-based nanostructures have been utilized in cervical cancer therapy. Finally, hydrogels have been developed as novel kinds of carriers to encapsulate therapeutics and improve anti-cancer activity.

Indocyanine-type Infrared-820 Encapsulated Polymeric Nanoparticle-Assisted Photothermal Therapy of Cancer

Organic small-molecule photosensitizers are well-characterized and known for the light-responsive treatment modality including photodynamic therapy. Compared with ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) light used in conventional photodynamic therapy with organic photosensitizers, near-infrared (NIR) light from 700 to 900 nm is less absorbed and scattered by biological tissue such as hemoglobin, lipids, and water, and thus, the use of NIR excitation can greatly increase the penetration depth and emission. Additionally, NIR light has lower energy than UV-vis that can be beneficial due to less activation of fluorophores present in tissues upon NIR irradiation. However, the low water stability, nonspecific distribution, and short circulation half-life of the organic photosensitizers limit its broad biological application. NIR responsive small-molecule fluorescent agents are the focus of extensive research for combined molecular imaging and hyperthermia. Recently a new class of NIR dye, IR-820 with excitation and emission wavelengths of 710 and 820 nm, has been developed and explored as an alternative platform to overcome some of the limitations of the most commonly used gold nanoparticles for photothermal therapy of cancer. Herein, we synthesized a core-shell biocompatible nanocarrier envelope made up of a phospholipid conjugated with poly(ethylene glycol) as a shell, while poly(lactic glycolic acid) (PLGA) was used as a core to encapsulate IR-820 dye. The IR-820-loaded nanoparticles were prepared by nanoprecipitation and characterized for their physicochemical properties and photothermal efficiency. These nanoparticles were monodispersed and highly stable in physiological pH with the hydrodynamic size of 103 ± 8 nm and polydispersity index of 0.163 ± 0.031. The IR-820-loaded nanocarrier showed excellent biocompatibility in the dark, whereas remarkable phototoxicity was observed with breast cancer cells (MCF-7) upon NIR laser excitation. Therefore, the IR-820-loaded phospholipid mimicking biodegradable lipid-polymer composite nanoparticles could have great potential for cancer theranostics.

Shortwave Infrared Absorptive and Emissive Pentamethine-Bridged Indolizine Cyanine Dyes

Shortwave infrared (SWIR)-emitting small molecules are desirable for biological imaging applications. In this study, four novel pentamethine indolizine cyanine dyes were synthesized with N,N-dimethylaniline-based substituents on the indolizine periphery at varied substitution sites. The dyes are studied via computational chemistry and optical spectroscopy both in solution and when encapsulated. Dramatic spectral shifts in the absorption and emission spectrum wavelengths with added donor groups are observed. Significant absorption and emission with an emissive quantum yield as high as 3.6% in the SWIR region is possible through the addition of multiple donor groups per indolizine.

Near-infrared emissive polymer-coated IR-820 nanoparticles assisted photothermal therapy for cervical cancer cells

Photothermal therapy (PTT) has attracted wide attention due to its noninvasiveness and its thermal ablation ability. As photothermal agents are crucial factor in PTT, those with the characteristics of biocompatibility, non-toxicity and high photothermal stability have attracted great interest. In this work, new indocyanine green (IR-820) was utilized as a photothermal agent and near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging nanoprobe. To improve the biocompatibility, poly(styrene-co-maleic anhydride) (PSMA) was utilized to encapsulate the IR-820 molecules to form novel IR-820@PSMA nanoparticles (NPs). Then, the optical and thermal properties of IR-820@PSMA NPs were studied in detail. The IR-820@PSMA NPs showed excellent photothermal stability and biocompatibility. The cellular uptaking ability of the IR-820@PSMA NPs was further confirmed in HeLa cells by the NIR fluorescent confocal microscopic imaging technique. The IR-820@PSMA NPs assisted PTT of living HeLa cells was conducted under 793 nm laser excitation, and a high PTT efficiency of 73.3% was obtained.

Near infrared dye-labelled polymeric micro- and nanomaterials: in vivo imaging and evaluation of their local persistence

The use of micro- and nanomaterials as carriers of therapeutic molecules can enhance the efficiency of treatments while avoiding side effects thanks to the development of controlled drug delivery systems. The binding of a dye to a drug or to a drug carrier has opened up a wide range of possibilities for an effective in vivo optical tracing of drug biodistribution by using non-invasive real-time technologies prior to their potential use as therapeutic vectors. Here, we describe the fluorescent tagging of polymeric micro- and nanomaterials based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid and on the thermoresponsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) with the fluorescent probe IR-820 which was chemically modified for its covalent coupling to the materials. The chemical modification of the dye and the polymers yielded micro- and nanoparticulated labelled materials to be potentially used as drug depots of different therapeutic molecules. In vitro biological studies revealed their reduced cytotoxicity. A spatiotemporal in vivo micro- and nanoparticle tracking allowed the evaluation of the biodistribution of materials showing their local persistence and high biocompatibility after pathological studies. These results underline the suitability of these materials for the local, sustained, not harmful and/or on-demand drug delivery and the remarkable importance of evaluating the biodistribution of materials and tissue persistence for their use as local drug depots.

Polyethylene glycol modified ORMOSIL theranostic nanoparticles for triggered doxorubicin release and deep drug delivery into ovarian cancer spheroids

A novel pegylated multifunctional probe of Ormosil nanoparticles (PEGCDSIR820) loaded with Near Infrared dye (NIR; IR820) and a chemotherapeutic drug, Doxorubicin (DOX) was developed for cancer theranostic applications. PEGCDSIR820 nanoparticles had an average diameter of 58.2±3.1nm, zeta potential of -6.9±0.1mV in cell culture media and stability against aggregation in physiological buffers. The encapsulation efficiency of DOX was 65.0±3.0%, and that of IR820 was 76.0±2.1%. PEGCDSIR820 showed no cytotoxicity in ovarian cancer cells (Skov-3). The cytotoxicity markedly increased when Skov-3 cells incubated with PEGCDSIR820 particles were exposed to 808nm laser due to the combination of adjuvant hyperthermia (43°C) and enhanced DOX release. Exposure to laser enhanced the release of DOX, 45% of DOX release was observed in 3h compared to 23% without laser exposure. Confocal imaging in Skov-3 cells showed that the combination of hyperthermia due to NIR exposure and release of DOX caused cell necrosis. Furthermore, in spheroids exposed to NIR laser penetration of DOX was deeper compared to the absence of laser exposure. Skov-3 spheroids incubated with pegylated nanoparticles for 24h and exposed to laser showed 94% reduction in cell viability. Encapsulation of IR820 in PEGCDSIR820 increased the in-vivo elimination half-life to 41.0±7.2h from 30.5±0.5h of free IR820.

Superstable Magnetic Nanoparticles in Conjugation with Near-Infrared Dye as a Multimodal Theranostic Platform

Near-infrared (NIR) dyes functionalized magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been widely applied in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), NIR fluorescence imaging, drug delivery, and magnetic hyperthermia. However, the stability of MNPs and NIR dyes in water is a key problem to be solved for long-term application. In this study, a kind of superstable iron oxide nanoparticles was synthesized by a facile way, which can be used as T1 and T2 weighted MRI contrast agent. IR820 was grafted onto the surface of nanoparticles by 6-amino hexanoic acid to form IR820-CSQ-Fe conjugates. Attached IR820 showed increased stability in water at least for three months and an enhanced ability of singlet oxygen production of almost double that of free dyes, which will improve its efficiency for photodynamic therapy. Meanwhile, the multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) and NIR imaging ability of IR820-CSQ-Fe will greatly increase the accuracy of disease detection. All of these features will broaden the application of this material as a multimodal theranostic platform.

IL-4 receptor blockade abrogates satellite cell: rhabdomyosarcoma fusion and prevents tumor establishment

Tumor cells of the muscle-related cancer alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma (aRMS) have dysregulated terminal myogenic differentiation that is characterized by continuous proliferation, decreased capacity to express markers of terminal differentiation, and inability of tumor cells to fuse to one another in the manner seen for normal myoblasts. Whether aRMS tumor cells can fuse with normal myogenic progenitors such as skeletal muscle stem cells (satellite cells) or myoblasts is unknown, as is the biological effect of fusion events if the phenomenon occurs. To study this possibility, we isolated primary satellite cells harboring a lacZ Cre-LoxP reporter gene for coculture with murine aRMS primary tumor cells expressing Cre. Results of in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated tumor cell-muscle cell progenitor fusion events as well as accelerated rates of tumor establishment and progression when satellite cells and derived muscle progenitors were coinjected with tumor cells in an orthotopic allograft model. Interleukin 4 receptor (IL-4R) blocking antibody treatment reversed fusion events in vitro and blocked tumor initiation and progression in vivo. Taken together, this study supports a potential role of tumor cell-host cell fusion and the strong therapeutic potential of IL-4R blockade to prevent the establishment of RMS tumors at new anatomical sites.

Design and synthesis of polymer-functionalized NIR fluorescent dyes--magnetic nanoparticles for bioimaging

The fluorescent probes having complete spectral separation between absorption and emission spectra (large Stokes shift) are highly useful for solar concentrators and bioimaging. In bioimaging application, NIR fluorescent dyes have a greater advantage in tissue penetration depth compared to visible-emitting organic dyes or inorganic quantum dots. Here we report the design, synthesis, and characterization of an amphiphilic polymer, poly(isobutylene-alt-maleic anhyride)-functionalized near-infrared (NIR) IR-820 dye and its conjugates with iron oxide (Fe3O4) magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) for optical and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Our results demonstrate that the Stokes shift of unmodified dye can be tuned (from ~106 to 208 nm) by the functionalization of the dye with polymer and MNPs. The fabrication of bimodal probes involves (i) the synthesis of NIR fluorescent dye (IR-820 cyanine) functionalized with ethylenediamine linker in high yield, >90%, (ii) polymer conjugation to the functionalized NIR fluorescent dye, and (iii) grafting the polymer-conjugated dyes on iron oxide MNPs. The resulting uniform, small-sized (ca. 6 nm) NIR fluorescent dye-magnetic hybrid nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit a wider emissive range (800-1000 nm) and minimal cytotoxicity. Our preliminary studies demonstrate the potential utility of these NPs in bioimaging by means of direct labeling of cancerous HeLa cells via NIR fluorescence microscopy and good negative contrast enhancement in T2-weighted MR imaging of a murine model.

Photosensitizer encapsulated organically modified silica nanoparticles for direct two-photon photodynamic therapy and in vivo functional imaging

Nanoparticle-assisted two-photon imaging and near infrared (NIR) imaging are two important technologies in biophotonics research. In the present paper, organically modified silica (ORMOSIL) nanoparticles encapsulated with either PpIX (protoporphyrin IX) photosensitizers or IR-820 NIR fluorophores were synthesized and optically characterized. Using the former ORMOSIL nanoparticles, we showed: (i) direct excitation of the fluorescence of PpIX through its efficient two-photon absorption in the intracellular environment of tumor cells, and (ii) cytotoxicity towards tumor cells by PpIX under two-photon irradiation. The latter ORMOSIL nanoparticles can be used as efficient NIR fluorescent contrast agents for various types in vivo animal imaging. We applied IR-820 doped ORMOSIL nanoparticles in in vivo brain imaging of mice. We also demonstrated the applications of them to sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping of mice. Finally, we showed that the nanoprobes could target the subcutaneously xenografted tumor of a mouse for long time observations. ORMOSIL nanoparticles have great potentials for disease diagnosis and clinical therapies.

Comparative Study of the Optical and Heat Generation Properties of IR820 and Indocyanine Green

Near-infrared (NIR) fluorophores are the focus of extensive research for combined molecular imaging and hyperthermia. In this study, we showed that the cyanine dye IR820 has optical and thermal generation properties similar to those of indocyanine green (ICG) but with improved in vitro and in vivo stability. The fluorescent emission of IR820 has a lower quantum yield than ICG but less dependence of the emission peak location on concentration. IR820 demonstrated degradation half-times approximately double those of ICG under all temperature and light conditions in aqueous solution. In hyperthermia applications, IR820 generated lower peak temperatures than ICG (4–9%) after 3-minute laser exposure. However, there was no significant difference in hyperthermia cytotoxicity, with both dyes causing significant cell growth inhibition at concentrations ≥ 5 μM. Fluorescent images of cells with 10 μM IR820 were similar to ICG images. In rats, IR820 resulted in a significantly more intense fluorescence signal and significantly higher organ dye content than for ICG 24 hours after intravenous dye administration ( p < .05). Our study shows that IR820 is a feasible agent in experimental models of imaging and hyperthermia and could be an alternative to ICG when greater stability, longer image collection times, or more predictable peak locations are desirable.

Noninvasive real-time fluorescence imaging of the lymphatic uptake of BSA-IRDye 680 conjugate administered subcutaneously in mice

The goal of our studies was to determine lymphatic uptake of bovine serum albumin (BSA) using real-time noninvasive fluorescence imaging. BSA labeled with near-infrared dye (IRDye) 680 was used as a model protein-dye conjugate. The conjugation of BSA with IRDye 680 was confirmed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Size-exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography and SDS-PAGE demonstrated that the IRDye 680-labeled BSA conjugate in the lymph node (LN) homogenate samples was stable at physiological temperature (37°C) for at least 5 days. Whole-body noninvasive optical imaging of hairless SKH-1 mice was performed after subcutaneous (s.c.) injection (dose = 0.1 mg/kg) into the front footpad. Noninvasive fluorescence imaging demonstrated that BSA-IRDye 680 conjugates were dynamically taken up by the lymphatic system, accumulated in the axillary LNs and then cleared, indicating that lymphatic transport plays a role in the absorption of BSA. Ex vivo tissue imaging of LN homogenates provided confirmatory data with respect to the uptake of fluorescent-labeled BSA determined by in vivo imaging. Noninvasive real-time imaging of LNs provides a novel tool for evaluating uptake and accumulation of fluorescent-labeled proteins by the lymphatic system after s.c. injection in a mouse model.

Measuring non-radiative relaxation time of fluorophores with biomedical applications by intensity-modulated laser-induced photoacoustic effect

Modulated tone-burst light was employed to measure non-radiative relaxation time of fluorophores with biomedical importance through photoacoustic effect. Non-radiative relaxation time was estimated through the frequency dependence of photoacoustic signal amplitude. Experiments were performed on solutions of new indocyanine green (IR-820), which is a near infrared dye and has biomedical applications, in two different solvents (water and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)). A 1.5 times slower non-radiative relaxation for the solution of dye in DMSO was observed comparing with the aqueous solution. This result agrees well with general finding that non-radiative relaxation of molecules in triplet state depends on viscosity of solvents in which they are dissolved. Measurements of the non-radiative relaxation time can be used as a new source of contrast mechanism in photoacoustic imaging technique. The proposed method has potential applications such as imaging tissue oxygenation and mapping of other chemophysical differences in microenvironment of exogenous biomarkers.

Crimson carrier, a long-acting contrast agent for in vivo near-infrared imaging of injured and diseased muscle

The near-infrared wavelengths (700-900 nm) are the most suitable optical window for light penetration and deep tissue imaging in small animals. Herein we report a near-infrared fluorescent contrast agent, crimson carrier, which acts as a blood pool contrast agent to detect and quantify injury and disease in live animals. After determining the excitation-emission spectra and pharmacokinetics, crimson carrier was injected into myoinjured mice to monitor their recovery. Crimson carrier was also used to image transgenic mice with spontaneous tumors. Crimson carrier has maximal excitation and emission wavelengths of 745 nm and 820 nm, respectively. Elimination occurs predominantly via urinary excretion. We demonstrate the utility of this contrast agent for serial imaging of traumatized muscle as well as muscle tumors. The unique long-acting pharmacokinetics and urinary excretion route characteristics make crimson carrier a contrast agent of choice for the visualization of tumors and injured muscle or other tissues in live animal studies.

Immune competency of a hairless mouse strain for improved preclinical studies in genetically engineered mice

Genetically engineered mouse models (GEMM) of cancer are of increasing value to preclinical therapeutics. Optical imaging is a cost-effective method of assessing deep-seated tumor growth in GEMMs whose tumors can be encoded to express luminescent or fluorescent reporters, although reporter signal attenuation would be improved if animals were fur-free. In this study, we sought to determine whether hereditable furlessness resulting from a hypomorphic mutation in the Hairless gene would or would not also affect immune competence. By assessing humoral and cellular immunity of the SKH1 mouse line bearing the hypomorphic Hairless mutation, we determined that blood counts, immunoglobulin levels, and CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were comparable between SKH1 and the C57Bl/6 strain. On examination of T-cell subsets, statistically significant differences in naïve T cells (1.7 versus 3.4 x 10(5) cells/spleen in SKH1 versus C57Bl/6, P = 0.008) and memory T cells (1.4 versus 0.13 x 10(6) cells/spleen in SKH1 versus C57Bl/6, P = 0.008) were detected. However, the numerical differences did not result in altered T-cell functional response to antigen rechallenge (keyhole limpet hemocyanin) in a lymph node cell in vitro proliferative assay. Furthermore, interbreeding the SKH1 mouse line to a rhabdomyosarcoma GEMM showed preserved antitumor responses of CD56+ natural killer cells and CD163+ macrophages, without any differences in tumor pathology. The fur-free GEMM was also especially amenable to multiplex optical imaging. Thus, SKH1 represents an immune competent, fur-free mouse strain that may be of use for interbreeding to other genetically engineered mouse models of cancer for improved preclinical studies.

Regulation of skeletal muscle regeneration by CCR2-activating chemokines is directly related to macrophage recruitment

Muscle regeneration requires CC chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) expression on bone marrow-derived cells; macrophages are a prominent CCR2-expressing cell in this process. CCR2-/- mice have severe impairments in angiogenesis, macrophage recruitment, and skeletal muscle regeneration following cardiotoxin (CTX)-induced injury. However, multiple chemokines activate CCR2, including monocyte chemotactic proteins (MCP)-1, -3, and -5. We hypothesized that MCP-1 is the chemokine ligand that mediates the impairments present in CCR2-/- mice. We examined muscle regeneration, capillary density, and cellular recruitment in MCP-1-/- and CCR2-/- mice following injury. Muscle regeneration and adipocyte accumulation, but not capillary density, were significantly impaired in MCP-1-/- compared with wild-type (WT) mice; however, muscle regeneration and adipocyte accumulation impairments were not as severe as observed in CCR2-/- mice. Although tissue levels of MCP-5 were elevated in MCP-1-/- mice compared with WT, the administration of MCP-5 neutralizing antibody did not alter muscle regeneration in MCP-1-/- mice. While neutrophil accumulation after injury was similar in all three mouse strains, macrophage recruitment was highest in WT mice, intermediate in MCP-1-/- mice, and severely impaired in CCR2-/- mice. In conclusion, while the absence of MCP-1 resulted in impaired macrophage recruitment and muscle regeneration, MCP-1-/- mice exhibit an intermediate phenotype compared with CCR2-/- mice. Intermediate macrophage recruitment in MCP-1-/- mice was associated with similar capillary density to WT, suggesting that fewer macrophages may be needed to restore angiogenesis vs. muscle regeneration. Finally, other chemokines, in addition to MCP-1 and MCP-5, may activate CCR2-dependent regenerative processes resulting in an intermediate phenotype in MCP-1-/- mice.