Evaluation of a Thiol-Detection Test to Assess Tooth Brushing Efficacy in Dogs

Periodontal disease affects more than 80% of dogs over 3 years of age, making it the most common disease in dogs seen in veterinary clinics. Gingivitis, the early-stage of periodontal disease, may be reversible with tooth brushing. Thiol, a sulfuric compound, has previously been shown to correlate with the degree of periodontal disease. In this study, a thiol-detection test was used to investigate daily tooth brushing efficacy in dogs. Twenty-two beagle dogs were subjected to daily tooth brushing for 2 weeks. Gingival index (GI), plaque index (PI), calculus index (CI) and thiol were assessed before treatment (day 1), after 1 week (day 7), after last treatment (day 14), and 2 weeks after treatment finished (day 29). Degree of stress was also assessed using a fear, anxiety and stress (FAS) scale. Both 7 and 14 days of daily tooth brushing showed an improvement in oral health. Thiol decreased significantly and GI and PI improved significantly after 1 and 2 weeks of brushing. No significant improvement in CI was shown. After an additional 2 weeks without brushing, GI and PI had returned to baseline levels. Stress levels decreased from day 1 to day 14. This study suggests that a thiol-detection test can be used to assess tooth brushing efficacy. Tooth brushing has a positive effect on the oral health in dogs as soon as 7 days after commencement.

Evaluation of the presence of gingivitis as confounding factor in assessing inflammatory status in serum and saliva of dogs with diabetes mellitus

The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in the serum and salivary inflammatory markers induced by Diabetes mellitus (DM) in dogs and to assess the possible confounding effect of gingivitis. A panel of 13 cytokines was measured in the serum and saliva of dogs diagnosed with DM and compared with healthy dogs without gingivitis (control group 1; CG1) and dogs with gingivitis but otherwise healthy (control group 2; CG2). The results of the present study showed statistically significantly higher levels of IL-8, KC-like and MCP1 in the serum of dogs with DM compared to CG1 dogs. In the case of saliva, the DM group presented statistically higher GM-CSF, IL6, IL15, and MCP1 levels compared to CG1, and lower KC-like chemokine compared to CG2. Finally, gingivitis produced changes in saliva, with salivary levels of GM-CSF, IL-6, IL-7, IL-15, IP-10, KC-like, IL-10, IL-18, MCP1, TNFα being statistically significantly higher in the saliva of CG2 dogs compared to CG1. The results of the present study indicate that dogs with DM have altered cytokine levels in serum and saliva compared to healthy dogs. In addition, this study highlights the importance of taking oral health into account when determining cytokines in dogs, as gingivitis can significantly alter their concentrations. .

Preliminary evaluation of the impact of periodontal treatment on markers of glycaemic control in dogs with diabetes mellitus: A prospective, clinical case series

BACKGROUND

Periodontal disease (PD) can adversely affect glycaemic control in humans. However, it is unknown if a similar association exists in dogs.

METHODS

Ten client-owned dogs with poorly regulated diabetes mellitus (DM) and PD were prospectively enrolled. A complete blood count, serum biochemistry, urinalysis and measurement of C-reactive protein, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-α, haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and fructosamine concentrations were performed before periodontal treatment (PT) and monthly thereafter for 3 months. A periodontal disease severity score (PDSS) was determined during PT. The effects of time post-PT and PDSS on markers of inflammation and glycaemic control were determined by generalised estimating equation analysis.

RESULTS

HbA1c (mean; 95% confidence interval [CI]) decreased 3 months post-PT (32.1 mmol/mol; 21.1-43.1 mmol/mol vs. 44.3 mmol/mol; 36.4-52.0; p = 0.003). PDSS at enrolment was significantly (p = 0.031) positively associated with HbA1c concentration. Due to a significant (p < 0.001) interaction between PDSS and time post-PT in the analysis of fructosamine, dogs with low (1-3) PDSS and high (7-9) PDSS were analysed separately. Fructosamine (mean; 95% CI) significantly decreased 1 month post-PT (570 μmol/L; 457-684 μmol/L vs. 624 μmol/L; 499-748; p = 0.001) in the high PDSS group but not in the low PDSS group. Fructosamine concentration upon enrolment and PDSS were correlated (r = 0.73, p = 0.017). IL-6 concentration significantly decreased 3 months post-PT (9.9 pg/mL; 8.5-11.3 pg/mL vs. 11.2 pg/mL; 9.7-12.7; p = 0.002).

LIMITATIONS

Limitations of the study included the small number of dogs, the lack of a control group and the inability to assess PDSS during follow-ups.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support a potential detrimental interaction between PD and DM. The apparent beneficial effect of PT on markers of glycaemic control was most conspicuous in dogs with more severe PD.

Association between gingival bleeding and hematuria as biomarkers of periodontitis and renal disease: a review

Gingival bleeding is a common complaint and symptom in patients with periodontitis. In clinics, gingival bleeding is regarded as an important sign of gingival inflammation, which is also of great significance in predicting the activity of periodontitis. Existing research has indicated that periodontitis has an impact on distant sites, such as the kidney. Hematuria is the principal feature of glomerular disease, which can reflect the degree and condition of glomerular inflammation. Previous studies have revealed an association between periodontal diseases with renal diseases, so a study is necessary to discuss their representative signs of them. For the moment, there are no reports that are concerned about the correlation between gingival bleeding with hematuria. The main point of this text is to review the potential association between gingival bleeding with hematuria, reveal their underlying mechanisms, and provide instructions for the therapy of periodontitis and glomerular diseases.

Therapeutic effect of aged garlic extract on gingivitis in dogs

Periodontal disease is one of the most common dental health problems in dogs. Clinical studies in humans have shown that aged garlic extract (AGE), which contains stable and water-soluble sulfur-containing bioactive compounds, improves the symptoms of periodontal diseases. Our previous study demonstrated that oral administration of AGE in healthy Beagle dogs at 90 mg/kg/day for 12 weeks had no adverse effects such as hemolytic anemia, which is well known to occur as a result of ingestion of Allium species, including onions and garlic, in dogs. However, the therapeutic potential of AGE in canine periodontal disease remains unclear. Accordingly, we investigated the therapeutic effects of AGE in Beagle dogs with mild gingivitis. Feeding 18 mg/kg/day of AGE for 8 weeks resulted in the improvement of gingival index score, level of volatile sulfur compounds in exhaled air, and enzyme activity of periodontal pathogens without any adverse effects on clinical signs and hematological and serum biochemical parameters. Moreover, AGE increased the concentration of salivary cathelicidin, an antimicrobial peptide that contributes to the oral innate immune response. These results suggest that AGE could be a potential therapeutic agent for canine gingivitis.

Dietary omega-3 fatty acids in the management of feline periodontal disease: What is the evidence?

Periodontal disease is an oral disorder with high prevalence in cats from 2 years of age, resulting from an inflammatory response against bacterial plaque. Treatment depends on the stage of the disease and may include dental scaling, local application of perioceutics, tissue regeneration and/or even tooth extraction and periodontal surgery. As multimodal therapy is often required, new strategies have been developed to improve the therapeutic response in these patients. Adjuvant use of omega-3 fatty acids has been reported in humans with periodontal disease, but the current evidence of its effect in companion animals, especially cats, is still considered to be scarce and conflicting. This review describes the state of the art regarding feline periodontal disease and seeks to clarify the potential effect of omega-3 fatty acids on its clinical management in light of the evidence available in the current literature.

Development and Application of a Weighted Gingivitis and Periodontitis (W-G/P) Score System in Cats

The adaptation for use in cats of a weighted periodontal scoring system developed in dogs is described. The system uses standardized methods to score the extent of gingivitis and periodontitis of buccal tooth surfaces, weighted by size of teeth and adjusted for missing teeth and size of the cat.

Genomic Medicine in Canine Periodontal Disease: A Systematic Review

Genomic medicine has become a growing reality; however, it is still taking its first steps in veterinary medicine. Through this approach, it will be possible to trace the genetic profile of a given individual and thus know their susceptibility to certain diseases, namely periodontal disease. This condition is one of the most frequently diagnosed in companion animal clinics, especially in dogs. Due to the limited existing information and the lack of comprehensive studies, the objective of the present study was to systematically review the existing scientific literature regarding genomic medicine in canine periodontal disease and determine which genes have already been studied and their probable potential. This study followed the recommendations of the PRISMA 2020 methodology. Canine periodontal disease allied to genomic medicine were the subjects of this systematic review. Only six articles met all of the inclusion criteria, and these were analyzed in detail. These studies described genetic variations in the following genes: interleukin-6, interleukin-10, interleukin-1, lactotransferrin, toll-like receptor 9, and receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B. Only in two of them, namely interleukin-1 and toll-like receptor 9 genes, may the identified genetic variations explain the susceptibility that certain individuals have to the development of periodontal disease. It is necessary to expand the studies on the existing polymorphic variations in genes and their relationship with the development of periodontal disease. Only then will it be possible to fully understand the biological mechanisms that are involved in this disease and that determine the susceptibility to its development.

Periodontal disease in cats under primary veterinary care in the UK: frequency and risk factors

OBJECTIVES

Periodontal disease is a multifactorial inflammatory disease that can have major welfare implications in cats. This study aimed to report the frequency and demographic risk factors of periodontal disease and to explore associations with common comorbid disorders in cats in the UK.

METHODS

The study included a random sample of 18,249 cats obtained from 1,255,130 cats under primary care during 2019 from clinics participating in the VetCompass programme. All disorders recorded during 2019 were extracted and reported. Risk factor and comorbid disorder analysis used multivariable logistic regression modelling.

RESULTS

Periodontal disease had a 1-year period prevalence of 15.2% (95% confidence interval [CI] 14.72-15.76). Breeds with the highest prevalence included Siamese (18.7%, 95% CI 12.24-26.72) and Maine Coon (16.7%, 95% CI 11.37-23.18). The median age of cats with periodontal disease (9.47 years, interquartile range [IQR] 5.96-12.97) was higher than for cats without periodontal disease (4.94 years, IQR 1.95-9.51; P <0.001). Increasing adult body weight, increasing age and sex-neuter status were significantly associated with rising odds of periodontal disease. Cats with periodontal disease had a higher median count of comorbid disorders per individual cat (3, IQR 2-4, range 1-14) than cats without periodontal disease (1, IQR 0-2, range 0-15; P <0.001). Cats with periodontal disease had 1.79 times the odds (95% CI 1.62-1.99, P <0.001) of diagnosis with at least one comorbid disorder disease than cats without periodontal disease.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Periodontal disease is the most common specific diagnosis in cats and is confirmed as a leading health issue in cats. Ageing is identified as the strongest predictor of periodontal disease risk in cats, suggesting the potential for increasing health gains from emphasis on dental care and health in cats as they age. The study offers evidence on a close link between periodontal disease and reduced overall health in cats.

Revisiting Periodontal Disease in Dogs: How to Manage This New Old Problem?

Periodontal disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent oral inflammatory diseases in dogs. PD onset begins with the formation of a polymicrobial biofilm (dental plaque) on the surface of the teeth, followed by a local host inflammatory response. To manage this disease, several procedures focusing on the prevention and control of dental plaque establishment, as well as on the prevention of local and systemic PD-related consequences, are essential. The removal of dental plaque and the inhibition of its formation can be achieved by a combination of dental hygiene homecare procedures including tooth brushing, the application of different oral products and the use of specific diet and chew toys, and regular professional periodontal procedures. Additionally, in some cases, periodontal surgery may be required to reduce PD progression. Associated with these measures, host modulation therapy, antimicrobial therapy, and other innovative therapeutic options may be useful in PD management. Moreover, PD high prevalence and its relation with potential local and systemic consequences reinforce the need for investment in the development of new preventive measures, treatments, and oral procedures to improve the control of this disease in dogs. Knowledge on the specific guidelines and diversity of the available products and procedures are fundamental to apply the most adequate treatment to each dog with PD.

Treponema denticola as a prognostic biomarker for periodontitis in dogs

Periodontal disease is one of the most common disorders in the oral cavity of dogs and humans. Periodontitis, the irreversible periodontal disease, arises progressively from gingivitis, the reversible inflammatory condition caused by dental plaque. Although the etiology of periodontitis has been widely studied in humans, it is still insufficient for the etiological studies on periodontitis in dogs. Many studies have reported that human periodontitis-related bacteria are putative pathogens responsible for periodontitis in dogs. However, most of these studies have focused on the appearance of a specific microbiome, and most of the cohort studies have insufficient sample sizes to generalize their results. In the present study, subgingival samples collected from 336 teeth were categorized into three groups at first, based on clinical outcomes (healthy, gingivitis, periodontitis). Subsequently, the periodontitis samples were further divided into three subgroups (early, moderate, and advanced periodontitis) according to the degree of periodontal attachment loss. Healthy and gingivitis were grouped as a reversible group, and the three subgroups were grouped as an irreversible group. To investigate trends of periodontopathic bacteria in the samples of dogs, a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed for quantification of 11 human periodontopathic bacteria as follows: Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans (Aa), Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg), Tannerella forsythia, Treponema denticola (Td), Fusobacterium nucleatum, Prevotella nigrescens, Prevotella intermedia, Parvimonas micra, Eubacterium nodatum, Campylobacter rectus, and Eikenella corrodens. The PCR results showed that Aa and Pg, the representative periodontopathic bacteria, were not significantly correlated or associated with the periodontitis cases in dogs. However, interestingly, Td was strongly associated with the irreversible periodontal disease in dogs, in that it was the most prevalent bacterium detected from the dog samples. These findings indicate that the presence and numbers of Td could be used as a prognostic biomarker in predicting the irreversible periodontal disease and the disease severity in dogs.

Estimation of periodontal pocket surface area in small to medium dogs: a proof-of-concept study

Background

Periodontal disease is the most common dental disease in dogs. Although the systemic effects of periodontal disease have not been clarified in veterinary science, it is necessary to evaluate the effects of periodontal disease in clinical trials in the future. There have been a few clinical attempts made, however, to assess the severity of periodontal inflammation and its impact on the systemic health of dogs. Meanwhile, in the field of dentistry for humans, the periodontal inflamed surface area (PISA) and periodontal epithelial surface area (PESA) have been used to quantitatively assess the degree of periodontal disease affecting a single tooth as well as the overall extent of periodontitis. Recent studies have also suggested the use of these assessments to examine the relationship between periodontal inflammation and systemic health.

Results

The estimation formula for a dog’s periodontal pocket surface area (PPSA), an alternative to PISA and PESA in humans, was established using body weight and periodontal pocket depth. Actual values were measured using extracted teeth from various dog breeds and sizes (2.3–25.0 kg of body weight) to obtain universal regression equations for PPSA. Altogether, 625 teeth from 73 dogs of 16 breeds were extracted and subsequently analyzed for morphological information.

PPSA was measured in 61 dogs of 10 breeds with periodontal disease using the established estimation formulas, and the correlation between PPSA and preoperative blood chemistry data was analyzed accordingly. A strong correlation was found between PPSA and serum globulin (r = 0.71) while moderate correlations were found for C-reactive protein (r = 0.54) and serum albumin (r = -0.51).

Conclusions

Estimation formulas using body weight and the 6-point probing depth were established for determining PPSA. Direct correlations between PPSA and several blood test results were observed in the study sample. Taken together, these results suggest that PPSA could be useful for evaluating the effects of periodontitis on systemic conditions in dogs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-021-03116-0.

A Review of Tissue Engineering for Periodontal Tissue Regeneration

Periodontal disease is one of the most common diagnoses in small animal veterinary medicine. This infectious disease of the periodontium is characterized by the inflammation and destruction of the supporting structures of teeth, including periodontal ligament, cementum, and alveolar bone. Traditional periodontal repair techniques make use of open flap debridement, application of graft materials, and membranes to prevent epithelial downgrowth and formation of a long junctional epithelium, which inhibits regeneration and true healing. These techniques have variable efficacy and are made more challenging in veterinary patients due to the cost of treatment for clients, need for anesthesia for surgery and reevaluation, and difficulty in performing necessary diligent home care to maintain oral health. Tissue engineering focuses on methods to regenerate the periodontal apparatus and not simply to repair the tissue, with the possibility of restoring normal physiological functions and health to a previously diseased site. This paper examines tissue engineering applications in periodontal disease by discussing experimental studies that focus on dogs and other animal species where it could potentially be applied in veterinary medicine. The main areas of focus of tissue engineering are discussed, including scaffolds, signaling molecules, stem cells, and gene therapy. To date, although outcomes can still be unpredictable, tissue engineering has been proven to successfully regenerate lost periodontal tissues and this new possibility for treating veterinary patients is discussed.

Mucosal Vaccination Against Periodontal Disease: Current Status and Opportunities

Approximately 9 out of 10 adults have some form of periodontal disease, an infection-induced inflammatory disease of the tooth-supporting tissues. The initial form, gingivitis, often remains asymptomatic, but this can evolve into periodontitis, which is typically associated with halitosis, oral pain or discomfort, and tooth loss. Furthermore, periodontitis may contribute to systemic disorders like cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Control options remain nonspecific, time-consuming, and costly; largely relying on the removal of dental plaque and calculus by mechanical debridement. However, while dental plaque bacteria trigger periodontal disease, it is the host-specific inflammatory response that acts as main driver of tissue destruction and disease progression. Therefore, periodontal disease control should aim to alter the host's inflammatory response as well as to reduce the bacterial triggers. Vaccines may provide a potent adjunct to mechanical debridement for periodontal disease prevention and treatment. However, the immunopathogenic complexity and polymicrobial aspect of PD appear to complicate the development of periodontal vaccines. Moreover, a successful periodontal vaccine should induce protective immunity in the oral cavity, which proves difficult with traditional vaccination methods. Recent advances in mucosal vaccination may bridge the gap in periodontal vaccine development. In this review, we offer a comprehensive overview of mucosal vaccination strategies to induce protective immunity in the oral cavity for periodontal disease control. Furthermore, we highlight the need for additional research with appropriate and clinically relevant animal models. Finally, we discuss several opportunities in periodontal vaccine development such as multivalency, vaccine formulations, and delivery systems.

The Relationship Between Periodontal Infection and Systemic and Distant Organ Disease in Dogs

Infection in the mouth causes systemic and distant organ changes in dogs. This article summarizes the information available. Reported changes include an increase in liver-generated acute-phase proteins in response to the infectious insult to the body and evidence of microscopic changes in renal, hepatic, and cardiac tissues. Treatment of periodontal infection results in a decrease in the acute-phase protein concentration, which supports the hypothesis that a cause-and-effect relationship exists between periodontal infection and distant organ changes.

Improved Oral Health and Adaptation to Treatment in Dogs Using Manual or Ultrasonic Toothbrush or Textile of Nylon or Microfiber for Active Dental Home Care

Poor oral health is a common problem in dogs causing pain and impaired welfare. The gold standard to maintain good oral health and prevent periodontitis is daily tooth brushing. However, many dog owners find it difficult, and dogs often show aversive behavior. There are several different tools available, and in this intra-subject study, four different active dental home care treatment options were examined: manual and ultrasonic toothbrush, a nylon glove, and a microfiber finger cloth. The treatments were evaluated for efficacy against gingivitis, plaque, and calculus in beagle dogs. Each dog received two treatments on the buccal sides of the teeth once daily, either two types of toothbrushes (N = 10) or two types of textiles (N = 11), on separate sides of the mouth. The dogs' teeth were assessed before and after the five-week treatment period, with the assessor blinded by additional, similar dogs (N = 7). The study also assessed the dogs' stress levels during treatment using a fear, anxiety, stress (FAS) protocol. All four treatments improved dog oral health, reducing gingivitis and plaque. Furthermore, the amount of calculus also decreased in some individuals. Adaptation to dental care occurred in the dogs over time. This information can be used to encourage dog owners to brush their dogs' teeth.

Exodontia associated bacteremia in horses characterized by next generation sequencing

Bacteremia resulting from dental surgery is increasingly recognized as a health risk, especially in older and immunocompromised patients. Dentistry-associated bacteremia can lead to remote infections, as exemplified by valvular endocarditis. Emerging evidence points to a novel role played by oral cavity commensals in the pathogenesis of diabetes, respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Whether dental extraction, a commonly undertaken procedure in old horses, causes bacteremia has not been reported extensively. In a prospective clinical study using next generation sequencing (based on bacterial 16S rRNA), the circulating blood microbiome was characterized before and at 1 h following extraction of incisor, canine or cheek teeth from 29 adult horses with dental disease. 16S rRNA gene sequencing results from the blood microbiome were compared with those from gingival swab samples obtained prior to extraction at the location of the diseased tooth. Bacteremia associated with translocated gingival commensals was demonstrated in horses undergoing exodontia and was, in some cases, still evident one hour post-operatively.

A pilot study to evaluate the serum Alpha-1 acid glycoprotein response in cats suffering from feline chronic gingivostomatitis

BACKGROUND

Feline chronic gingivostomatitis (FCGS) is a multifactorial immune-mediated disease that can lead to chronic pain, anorexia, and weight loss and has substantial health and welfare effects. Currently, the recommended treatment includes dental extractions to decrease the inflammatory stimulation associated with dental plaque. However, complete remission is observed in less than half of the cases, and the majority need comprehensive medical management. This study aimed to evaluate the serum levels of the acute phase protein alpha-1 acid glycoprotein (AGP) in cats with FCGS and to examine whether dental extractions contribute to a significant decrease in the systemic inflammatory response at two postoperative time points.

RESULTS

AGP serum concentrations in the cats with FCGS were significantly higher at all time points than that in the control groups and were significantly correlated with the global caudal stomatitis score at day 0 but not at day 30 or 60. A significant improvement of some clinical scores, such as perceived comfort and global caudal stomatitis, was observed 60 days after the dental extraction. However, the levels of AGP did not significantly change over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Cats with FCGS were more likely to have a systemic inflammatory response compared with age- and dental disease-matched controls. Dental extractions, in most cases, did not contribute to a significant decrease of AGP both at 30 and 60 days. Therefore, this study reinforces the need to pursue comprehensive medical management after dental extractions to attenuate the systemic inflammatory response as a result of this disease.

World Small Animal Veterinary Association Global Dental Guidelines

Dental, oral, and maxillofacial diseases are some of the most common problems in small animal veterinary practice. These conditions create significant pain as well as localized and potentially systemic infection. As such, the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) believes that un- and under treated oral and dental diseases pose a significant animal welfare concern. Dentistry is an area of veterinary medicine which is still widely ignored and is subject to many myths and misconceptions. Effective teaching of veterinary dentistry in the veterinary school is the key to progression in this field of veterinary medicine, and to the improvement of welfare for all our patients globally. These guidelines were developed to provide veterinarians with the information required to understand best practices for dental therapy and create realistic minimum standards of care. Using the three-tiered continuing education system of WSAVA, the guidelines make global equipment and therapeutic recommendations and highlight the anaesthetic and welfare requirements for small animal patients. This document contains information on common oral and dental pathologies, diagnostic procedures (an easily implementable and repeatable scoring system for dental health, dental radiography and radiology) and treatments (periodontal therapy, extractions). Further, there are sections on anaesthesia and pain management for dental procedures, home dental care, nutritional information, and recommendations on the role of the universities in improving veterinary dentistry. A discussion of the deleterious effects of anaesthesia free dentistry (AFD) is included, as this procedure is ineffective at best and damaging at worst. Throughout the document the negative effects of undiagnosed and/or treated dental disease on the health and well-being of our patients, and how this equates to an animal welfare issue, is discussed.

Effects of peri-implant infection on serum biochemical analysis

BACKGROUND

Peri-implant disease (PID) has not been directly linked to pathological organ changes. The present study assessed the dynamics of serum biochemical parameters in a model of experimental peri-implantitis in dogs, followed by open flap debridement.

METHODS

Seven male beagle dogs comprised the study group. Procedures were performed as follows-extractions of two premolars and one molar on each mandibular quadrant (Day 0); bone healing time (week14); placement of four rough-surface endoosseous implants, two on each mandibular side; implant uncovering (week 28); induction of experimental peri-implantitis by the use of three ligatures (weeks 31, 34, 37) followed by open flap debridement (week 42). Serum biochemical analysis following each procedure was compared to baseline. Biochemical parameters were assigned into four subsets of variables-inflammation, renal function, liver function, and blood glucose. Wilcoxon paired tests were conducted in order to identify statistically significant differences between baseline data and values obtained after each procedure RESULTS: Following experimental peri-implantitis, the dynamics of renal parameters and blood glucose were minimal whereas statistically significant (P < 0.05) increases were noted for inflammatory (total protein and albumin concentrations) and hepatic (ALT, AST) parameters. A statistically significant (P < 0.05) decrease was only noted for total bilirubin. After open flap debridement, inflammatory (total protein and albumin concentrations) and hepatic (AST) parameters returned to baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

Within their limits, the present results indicate that: (a) PID affects inflammatory and hepatic serum biochemical parameters, and (b) following open flap debridement most of the values returned to baseline.

Dog Owners' Perspectives on Canine Dental Health-A Questionnaire Study in Sweden

Periodontal disease is one of the most common diseases affecting dogs, with a reported prevalence of at least 80% in dogs over 3 years of age. However, there is a lack of studies regarding dog owners' assessment of their dog's dental health, and whether they perceive clinical signs often associated with periodontal disease, i.e., dental calculus, halitosis or mobile or lost teeth. A validated questionnaire survey was distributed to all Swedish dog owners with email addresses in the national registry (n = 209,263). The response rate was 32%. The survey questions concerned opinions and practices regarding canine dental health, including assessment of dental health parameters and dog owners' ability to examine their dog's mouth. A construct (α = 0.76) was used to investigate dog owners' assessed symptoms of their dog's dental health in relation to background factors. Half of the respondents rated their dog's dental health as very good. However, one in four dog owners experienced difficulties when inspecting the dog's teeth. The most common reason for this difficulty was stated to be an uncooperative dog. Almost half of the dog owners reported halitosis to some degree in their dog, and almost four in ten owners reported dental calculus. One in eight dogs had been previously anesthetized for dental cleaning, and one in 12 dogs had experienced problems with gum disease, according to the owners. Owners' assessment varied significantly with the dog's age, weight, breed, breed group, sex, and concurrent disease. Owner-related factors that influenced the assessment of the dog's dental health were age, gender, education, county (urban/rural), and whether they were breeders or not. Dog owners with smaller dogs, older dogs and certain breeds predisposed to periodontal disease assessed their dog's dental health as worse than their counterparts, which is in agreement with previously reported higher prevalence of dental disease in these groups. This indicates that dog owners are able to perform relative assessment of their dog's dental health status. Our results also highlight the need for routine professional assessment of periodontal health, as well as education of dog owners and training of dogs to accept dental care procedures.

Dental home care in dogs - a questionnaire study among Swedish dog owners, veterinarians and veterinary nurses

Background

Periodontal disease remains one of the dog’s most common health issues, even though it is largely preventable by tooth brushing. Implementation of daily tooth brushing would not only improve animal welfare, but also reduce veterinary costs for the owner. There is a paucity of studies investigating attitudes, opinions and practices of dog owners, veterinarians, and veterinary nurses regarding preventative dental home care in dogs. The objective of this study was to investigate these parameters in Sweden, thereby providing a basis for improved prophylactic strategies.

Methods

Validated questionnaire surveys were distributed to all Swedish dog owners (n = 209,263), veterinarians (n = 3657) and veterinary nurses (n = 1650) with e-mail addresses in the national registry. The response rates were 32% for dog owners and veterinarians, and 38% for veterinary nurses. The survey questions concerned attitudes, opinions and practices regarding dental home care, including whether dog owners received information concerning dental home care or not, and if this information resulted in implementation.

Results

Attitudes, opinions and practices regarding dental home care are presented for Swedish dog owners, veterinarians, and veterinary nurses. A fundamental finding was that the absolute majority of Swedish dog owners do not perform adequate prophylactic dental home care. Considerable discrepancies were identified in the opinions of veterinary health practitioners and dog owners regarding attitudes towards dental home care and conveying of information. Several areas for improvement in the communication between dog owners and veterinary health practitioners concerning dental home care were identified.

Conclusion

Our results illustrates the need for validated methods to increase dog owner compliance with dental home care recommendations. We also see a need of further education, regarding canine dental home care, among veterinarians, veterinary nurses, and dog owners. The results from this unique study constitute an important foundation for future development of prophylactic strategies, with the ultimate goal to improve dental health, and thereby animal welfare, in dogs.

Evaluation of Systemic Inflammation Parameters in Dogs with Periodontitis

Periodontal diseases are the most common diseases in veterinary medicine. The first clinical finding is chewing difficulty, saliva flow and bad oral odor. It further develops into plaque and tartar formation, gingival inflammation and hemorrhagic appearance of the gingiva, periodontal pockets formation, alveolar bone resorption and tooth loss.

In this study an evaluation has been made to determine which degree reflects on the parameters of systemic inflammatory reaction with special attention to IL-6 (Interleukine-6), CRP (C-reactive protein), osteopontin, superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and Ig (Immunglobulins = Total protein – Albumin) and hematological parameters in dogs with periodontitis.

Two groups have been defined in this study. The first group included 10 healthy and owned dogs as a control group. The second group consisted of 10 owned dogs with moderate-severe periodontitis.

The difference between monocyte (p <0.001) and neutrophil (p <0.05) counts was found to be significant. In addition, the difference between SOD, MDA, glutathione peroxidase, CRP, IL-6 measurements in group 1 and group 2 was significant. (p <0.001). The level of osteopontin in moderate-severe periodontitis cases was found significantly higher than the level measured in the healthy group.

Measured values in the moderate-severe periodontitis cases are higher than the healthy group in terms of CRP, IL-6, and osteopontin levels. Increasing severity of periodontitis was associated with changes in oxidative stress parameters: increased MDA, decreased SOD and glutathione peroxidase levels. These differences provide important information about the evaluation of the cellular responses. There is a need for continued research into the systemic impact of periodontal disease.

Relation between periodontal disease and systemic diseases in dogs

Periodontal disease (PD) is one of the most frequent and widespread inflammatory diseases in dogs. The onset of PD pathogenesis is prompted by the dental microbial biofilm combined with the animal immune-inflammatory response. Along with local effects, systemic consequences can occur secondary to dental plaque-associated bacteraemia, affecting distant tissues and organs. The main goal of this retrospective study was to access and evaluate the association between PD and systemic consequences (renal, hepatic and cardiac) in a group of 136 dogs. Clinical records of all animals were assessed for general and systemic information, further analysed by general linear model and Odds-Ratio. Animals were organized in two groups, PD group and control group, formed by animals without PD. In this population, increasing age was proven to be a risk factor (OR = 1.04, p < .01) for PD establishment. Small breeds (<10 Kg) were the most prevalent in the PD group, being more susceptible to this disease. On the other hand, no influence of gender or reproductive status in PD progression was observed. Regarding systemic diseases, a statistically significant association (p = .026) was obtained between PD and cardiac disease. Results show that PD can have a significant adverse impact on animals' health, being related with systemic consequences, which may increase morbidity and mortality rates of these animals. PD prevention, with focus on owner's information about this disease and its management, are essential points for an active PD control program.

2019 AAHA Dental Care Guidelines for Dogs and Cats*

The 2019 AAHA Dental Care Guidelines for Dogs and Cats outline a comprehensive approach to support companion animal practices in improving the oral health and often, the quality of life of their canine and feline patients. The guidelines are an update of the 2013 AAHA Dental Care Guidelines for Dogs and Cats. A photographically illustrated, 12-step protocol describes the essential steps in an oral health assessment, dental cleaning, and periodontal therapy. Recommendations are given for general anesthesia, pain management, facilities, and equipment necessary for safe and effective delivery of care. To promote the wellbeing of dogs and cats through decreasing the adverse effects and pain of periodontal disease, these guidelines emphasize the critical role of client education and effective, preventive oral healthcare.

Survival analysis to evaluate associations between periodontal disease and the risk of development of chronic azotemic kidney disease in cats evaluated at primary care veterinary hospitals

OBJECTIVE To examine potential associations between periodontal disease (PD) and the risk of development of chronic azotemic kidney disease (CKD) among cats and determine whether the risk of CKD increases with severity of PD. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. ANIMALS 169, 242 cats. PROCEDURES Cats were evaluated ≥ 3 times at any of 829 hospitals from January 1, 2002, through June 30, 2013. Cats with an initial diagnosis of PD of any stage (n = 56,414) were frequency matched with cats that had no history or evidence of PD (112,828) by age and year of study entry. Data on signalment, PD, and other conditions potentially related to CKD were extracted from electronic medical records. Cox proportional hazards modeling was used to estimate the association of PD with CKD after controlling for covariates. RESULTS PD was associated with increased risk of CKD; risk was highest for cats with stage 3 or 4 PD. Risk of CKD increased with age. Purebred cats had greater risk of CKD than mixed-breed cats. General anesthesia within the year before study exit and diagnosis of cystitis at any point prior to study exit (including prior to study entry) were each associated with increased CKD risk. Diagnosis of diabetes mellitus or hepatic lipidosis at any point prior to study exit was associated with decreased CKD risk. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The findings supported the benefit of maintaining good oral health and can be useful to veterinarians for educating owners on the importance of preventing PD in cats.

Miniature Schnauzers under primary veterinary care in the UK in 2013: demography, mortality and disorders

Background

Individual dog breeds are often reported as predisposed to specific breed-related disorders but reliable epidemiological data on disease prevalence are sparse. The Miniature Schnauzer in the UK is a popular small breed dog that is often considered as relatively healthy and long-lived, but is this really true? This study aimed to use data from the VetCompass™ Programme at the Royal Veterinary College to characterise the demography, mortality and common disorders of the general population of Miniature Schnauzers under veterinary care in the UK.

Results

The study population of 455,557 dogs from 304 clinics in the VetCompass™ database under veterinary care during 2013 included 3857 Miniature Schnauzers (0.85%). For dogs with data available, 1771 (56.9%) were neutered and 1893 (49.2%) were females. Mean adult bodyweight overall was 9.9 kg (SD 2.2 kg) and median longevity was 11.6 years (IQR 9.3–13.1, range 0.5–17.0). The most prevalent fine-level precision disorders recorded were periodontal disease (n = 343, prevalence 17.4, 95% CI: 15.7–19.1), obesity/overweight (164, 8.3, 95% CI: 7.1–9.6), anal sac impaction (114, 5.8, 95% CI: 4.8–6.9), vomiting (100, 5.1, 95% CI% 4.1–6.1) and otitis externa (99, 5.0, 95% CI% 4.1–6.1). The most prevalent grouped-level precision disorders were dental (n = 378, prevalence: 19.2, 95% CI: 17.5–21.0), enteropathy (270, 13.7, 95% CI: 12.2–15.3), cutaneous (250, 12.7, 95% CI: 11.2–14.2) and aural (197, 10.0, 95% CI: 8.7–11.4).

Conclusions

This study provides generalisable evidence on the demography, longevity and most prevalent disorders in the Miniature Schnauzer breed in the UK. Awareness of common diseases and breed predispositions can support evidence-based policies to improve breed health, guide veterinary surgeons when producing differential diagnosis lists, and assist owners when purchasing or caring for their pets.

Prospective randomised blinded clinical trial assessing effectiveness of three dental plaque control methods in dogs

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of three commonly used methods of controlling dental plaque accumulation within a general practice setting.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A blinded study, block randomising dogs at recruitment to receive one of three treatments to start after a routine scale and polish procedure: once daily tooth brushing using a toothbrush and veterinary toothpaste, once daily administration of a single dental hygiene chew or a prescription dental diet. Blinded scoring of plaque accumulation, both coverage and thickness, was performed at the end of the 6-week study.

RESULTS

A total of 22 dogs completed the study, which simultaneously assessed the effectiveness of the three means of plaque control. Daily tooth brushing was shown to be more than three times as effective at controlling plaque accumulation compared to using a daily dental chew or dental diet. The dental plaque scores for the diet and dental chews were not significantly different from one another and there was much greater variability in the mouth scores for these two groups of dogs compared to the tooth brushing group.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The study design has been shown to be an effective means of assessing plaque accumulation over a 6-week period using a clean mouth model. Secondly, this study adds to the evidence which shows that daily tooth brushing is the most effective single method of reducing plaque accumulation and optimising dogs' oral health.

Toll-like receptor 9 gene in Periodontal Disease - A promising biomarker

Periodontal Disease is an infectious and inflammatory disorder triggered mainly by periodontopathogenic bacteria, however, as a multifactorial disease, several factors modulate its progression, namely, genetic factors. Toll-like receptors (TLR) recognize molecular patterns present in pathogens and trigger an immune response against them. Thus, sequences variants in TLR genes seem to have the potential to modify the predisposition to Periodontal Disease and its progression. Based on this fact, TLR9 gene were analysed in a case-control study. DNA was obtained from 90 dogs (50 control and 40 cases) and a fragment of TLR9 gene was amplified by PCR and sequenced. The variants were identified by comparison with the dog wild type sequences. Our results suggest that rs375556098 and rs201959275 polymorphisms in the TLR9 gene are good candidates to become biomarkers of the canine predisposition to Periodontal Disease. It's important to notice that these polymorphic sites exist in Human exactly in the same codon. Since the dog is the best animal model to replicate the pathophysiological mechanisms of human Periodontal Disease, these results can potentially be extrapolated to humans.

Effects of Edible Treats Containing Ascophyllum nodosum on the Oral Health of Dogs: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Single-Center Study

The objective of this placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized study (designed according to evidence based medicine standards) was to determine the effect of 90-day administration of edible treats containing the brown algae, Ascophyllum nodosum, on plaque and dental calculus accumulation on the teeth of dogs, as well as on other parameters characterizing canine oral health status, including: plaque index (PI), calculus index (CI), oral health index (OHI), gingival bleeding index (GBI), and volatile sulfur compound (VSC) concentration. Sixty client-owned dogs, including Japanese chin, miniature Schnauzer, Chihuahua, Pomeranian, and West Highland White Terrier (WHWT) breeds, underwent professional dental cleaning and were randomly subdivided into two groups receiving daily edible treats containing the brown algae A. nodosum, or placebo, adjusted to their bodyweight. After a comprehensive oral health assessment, including a professional dental cleaning, which were both performed under general anesthesia, clinical assessments of PI, CI, OHI, GBI, and VSC concentration were performed under sedation after 30, 60, and 90 days of treatment. Oral administration of edible treats containing A. nodosum significantly improved PI, CI, and VSC concentration, compared with the placebo-treated group. The consumption of edible treats containing A. nodosum efficiently decreased plaque and calculus accumulation in the investigated dogs. Dogs treated with A. nodosum also exhibited significantly lower concentrations of VSC and better oral health status (e.g., OHI and GBI) than those in the placebo-control group.

Oral-Fluid Thiol-Detection Test Identifies Underlying Active Periodontal Disease Not Detected by the Visual Awake Examination

Periodontal disease in dogs is highly prevalent but can only be accurately diagnosed by performing an anesthetized oral examination with periodontal probing and dental radiography. In this study, 114 dogs had a visual awake examination of the oral cavity and were administered an oral-fluid thiol-detection test prior to undergoing a a full-mouth anesthetized oral examination and digital dental radiographs. The results show the visual awake examination underestimated the presence and severity of active periodontal disease. The thiol-detection test was superior to the visual awake examination at detecting the presence and severity of active periodontal disease and was an indicator of progression toward alveolar bone loss. The thiol-detection test detected active periodontal disease at early stages of development, before any visual cues were present, indicating the need for intervention to prevent periodontal bone loss. Early detection is important because without intervention, dogs with gingivitis (active periodontal disease) progress to irreversible periodontal bone loss (stage 2+). As suggested in the current AAHA guidelines, a thiol-detection test administered in conjunction with the visual awake examination during routine wellness examinations facilitates veterinarian-client communication and mitigates under-diagnosis of periodontal disease and underutilization of dental services. The thiol-detection test can be used to monitor the periodontal health status of the conscious patient during follow-up examinations based on disease severity.

A cross-sectional study to estimate prevalence of periodontal disease in a population of dogs (Canis familiaris) in commercial breeding facilities in Indiana and Illinois

The objectives of this cross-sectional study were: 1) to estimate the prevalence and characterize the severity of periodontal disease in a population of dogs housed in commercial breeding facilities; 2) to characterize PD preventive care utilized by facility owners; and 3) to assess inter-rater reliability of a visual scoring assessment tool. Adult dogs (N = 445) representing 42 breeds at 24 CB facilities in Indiana and Illinois were assessed. Periodontal disease was scored visually using the American Veterinary Dental Collage 0-IV scale. Inter-rater reliability was assessed on 198 dogs and facility owners were asked to provide information about the preventive care utilized. The overall prevalence of periodontal disease (Grades I-IV) was 86.3% (95% CI: 82.9, 89.3). An ordered logistic regression analysis found age (OR = 1.4; 95% CI 1.24, 1.54; P<0.0001), facility (OR = 1.13; 95% CI 1.09, 1.18; P<0.0001), sex (OR = 1.7; 95% CI 1.12, 2.65; P = 0.013), and non-professional dental scaling (OR = 2.82; 95% CI 1.34, 5.91; P = 0.006) to be statistically significant. Inter-rater reliability analysis found agreement to be 86.2%, with a weighted kappa of 0.4731 (95% CI 0.3847, 0.5615) indicating moderate agreement. Risk of periodontal disease increased with increasing age. Additionally, a trend toward decreasing risk with increasing weight was also found, although it was not statistically significant. The trends identified agree with studies that have evaluated periodontal disease in the companion dog population and do not support the assumption that the dental health of dogs in commercial breeding facilities is worse than that of the population as a whole. Although there were few cases of severe periodontal disease and all facilities employed some type of preventive care in this sample, the large number of dogs with some degree of disease (Grades I-IV) suggests that further investigation of preventive care is warranted.

Evaluation of Complete Blood Count Indices (NLR, PLR, MPV/PLT, and PLCRi) in Healthy Dogs, Dogs With Periodontitis, and Dogs With Oropharyngeal Tumors as Potential Biomarkers of Systemic Inflammatory Response

The aim of the study was to retrospectively assess complete blood count (CBC) indices of dogs with periodontitis (PD; n = 73) and dogs with oropharyngeal tumors (OT; n = 92) in comparison to CBC indices of healthy dogs (HD; n = 71). Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet to lymphocyte ratio, mean platelet volume to platelet ratio, and platelet large cell ratio index (PLCRi) were evaluated as biomarkers of systemic inflammatory response provoked by PD and OT. Results of multivariable polytomous logistic regression analysis indicated no significant associations between CBC indices and PD. Both NLR and PLCRi were significantly higher in dogs with OT when compared to HD and dogs with PD and could, therefore, indicate a tumor-associated systemic inflammatory response. Additional studies of CBC indices, along with other biomarkers of systemic inflammatory response, are recommended to validate them as reliable indicators of clinical disease activity.

Evaluation of an Osseous Allograft Membrane for Guided Tissue Regeneration in the Dog

Clinical application of a demineralized freeze-dried cortical bone membrane allograft (DFBMA) for treatment of intra(infra)bony periodontal pockets in dogs was evaluated. The mean pre-treatment periodontal probing depth equaled 7.2-mm. Post-treatment probing depths in all 11 cases were normal, with a mean periodontal probing gain of 5.4-mm. Guided tissue regeneration using a commercially available veterinary canine DFBMA and canine demineralized freeze-dried bone allograft (DFDBA) resulted in clinically significant periodontal attachment gains. The gain of new periodontal tissue attachment was statistically significant (P < 0.0001). The commercially available veterinary allograft products predictably increased new periodontal attachment without any identified membrane sequelae in these 11 cases.

Oral Manifestations of Chronic Kidney Disease and Renal Secondary Hyperparathyroidism: A Comparative Review

Recent epidemiological studies have demonstrated that significant associations exist between oral disease and diseases involving non-oral tissues. Occasionally, the roles may be reversed and the oral cavity can be severely affected by systemic disease originating in another part of the body. Renal secondary hyperparathyroidism is a common endocrinopathy that occurs as a consequence of chronic azotemic kidney disease. Renal osteodystrophy, the most dramatic clinical consequence of renal secondary hyperparathyroidism is uncommon, but can result in demineralization of maxillofacial bones, loosening of teeth, and pathological jaw fractures. The purpose of this report is to update the current understanding of the pathophysiology of this endocrine disease and to compare the oral manifestations of renal secondary hyperparathyroidism in humans and companion animals. A 50-year review of the veterinary literature was undertaken to examine the clinical presentation of renal osteodystrophy in dogs, and to determine what clinical consequences of renal secondary hyperparathyroidism have been reported in domestic cats.

Short communication: Distribution of Porphyromonas gulae fimA genotypes in oral specimens from dogs with mitral regurgitation

Porphyromonas gulae, a suspected pathogen for periodontal disease in dogs, possesses approximately 41-kDa fimbriae (FimA) that are encoded by the fimA gene. In the present study, the association of fimA genotypes with mitral regurgitation (MR) was investigated. Twenty-five dogs diagnosed with MR (age range 6-13 years old, average 10.8 years) and 32 healthy dogs (8-15 years old, average 10.8 years) were selected at the participating clinics in a consecutive manner during the same time period. Oral swab specimens were collected from the dogs and bacterial DNA was extracted, then polymerase chain reaction analysis was performed using primers specific for each fimA genotype, with the dominant genotype determined. The rate for genotype C dominant specimens was 48.0% in the MR group, which was significantly higher than that in the control group (18.8%) (P <0.05). These results suggest that P. gulae fimA genotype C is associated with MR.

Screening for periodontal disease in research dogs - a methodology study

Background

It has been shown that the prevalence of both clinical attachment loss (CAL) ≥1 mm and pocket probing depth (PPD) ≥4 mm is relatively high even in younger dogs, but also that only a minority of the dogs have such clinical signs of periodontal disease (PD) in more than a few teeth. Hence, a minority of dogs carry the major PD burden. These epidemiological features suggest that screening for PD in larger groups of dogs, allowing for rapid assessment of treatment planning, or for the selection of dogs with or without PD prior to be included in experimental trials, should be possible. CAL is the central variable in assessing PD extent and severity while PPD is the central variable used in treatment planning which make these two variables obvious in a screening protocol with the dual aim of disease identification and treatment planning. The main purpose of the present study in 98 laboratory Beagle dogs was to construct a fast, simple and accurate screening tool, which is highly sensitive for the identification of dogs with PD.

Results

Examination of the maxillary P4, P3, P2, I1 and C would, in this population, result in the identification of 85.5% of all dogs and 96% of all teeth positive for CAL ≥1 mm, and 58.9% of all dogs and 82.1% of all teeth positive for PD ≥4 mm.

Examination of tooth pairs, all C’s, maxillary I2, M2 and the mandibular P4 would, in this population result in identification of 92.9% of all dogs and 97.3% of all teeth positive for PD ≥4 mm, and 65.5% of all dogs and 83.2% of all teeth positive for CAL ≥1 mm. The results presented here only pertain to the present study population.

Conclusions

This screening protocol is suitable for examination of larger groups of laboratory Beagle dogs for PD and our findings indicate that diseased dogs are identified with a high degree of sensitivity. Before this screening can be used in clinical practice, it has to be validated in breeds other than Beagle dogs and in populations with larger age variation.

Periodontal disease associated with red complex bacteria in dogs

OBJECTIVE

Red complex bacteria (Treponema denticola, Tannerella forsythia and Porphyromonas gingivalis) play a major role in the aetiology of periodontal disease in humans. This study was designed to evaluate the association of such bacteria with periodontal disease in dogs.

METHODS

Seventy-three subgingival samples taken from dogs ranging from 2 months to 12 years (median age 4 years) were tested for red complex bacteria using a polymerase chain reaction assay.

RESULTS

Thirty-six of 73 (49 · 3%) dogs were found to be positive for T. forsythia and P. gingivalis. Dogs with gingivitis or periodontitis were more likely to be infected with T. forsythia and P. gingivalis [odds ratio (OR) 5 · 4 (confidence interval (CI) 1 · 9-15 · 6), P = 0 · 002] than healthy animals. Only 3 (4 · 1%) of 73 samples were positive for red complex bacteria, but the association with periodontal disease was not significant.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The results indicate that involvement of red complex bacteria in periodontal disease in dogs is similar to that observed in humans. Only the concurrent presence of T. forsythia and P. gingivalis were correlated to periodontal disease in dogs in this study.

Periodontal disease as a potential factor for systemic inflammatory response in the dog

Periodontal disease is an inflammatory disease that has numerous consequences both locally and systemically The aim of this study was to assess whether periodontal disease causes systemic inflammatory response in otherwise healthy, adult dogs. We estimated the total mouth periodontal score (TMPS), measured the concentration of C-reactive protein (CRP), hematocrit, and albumin, and determined the white blood cell (WBC) and polymorphonuclear cell (PMN) counts in client-owned dogs. There was a statistically significant relationship between the gingival bleeding index (TMPS-G) and CRP concentration, and WBC and PMN counts, possibly during the active periods of periodontal tissue destruction. No correlation was found between the periodontal destruction index (TMPS-P) and the measured blood parameters. We conclude that chronic periodontal disease does not cause anemia or a reduction in serum albumin. However, active periods of periodontal inflammation may be associated with laboratory values suggestive of a systemic inflammatory response.

Validation of use of subsets of teeth when applying the total mouth periodontal score (TMPS) system in dogs

A total mouth periodontal score (TMPS) system in dogs has been described previously. Use of buccal and palatal/lingual surfaces of all teeth requires observation and recording of 120 gingivitis scores and 120 periodontitis scores. Although the result is a reliable, repeatable assessment of the extent of periodontal disease in the mouth, observing and recording 240 data points is time-consuming. Using data from a previously reported study of periodontal disease in dogs, correlation analysis was used to determine whether use of any of seven different subsets of teeth can generate TMPS subset gingivitis and periodontitis scores that are highly correlated with TMPS all-site, all-teeth scores. Overall, gingivitis scores were less highly correlated than periodontitis scores. The minimal tooth set with a significant intra-class correlation (> or = 0.9 of means of right and left sides) for both gingivitis scores and attachment loss measurements consisted of the buccal surface of the maxillary third incisor canine, third premolar fourth premolar; and first molar teeth; and, the mandibular canine, third premolar, fourth premolar and first molar teeth on one side (9 teeth, 15 root sites). Use of this subset of teeth, which reduces the number of data points per dog from 240 to 30 for gingivitis and periodontitis at each scoring episode, is recommended when calculating the gingivitis and periodontitis scores using the TMPS system.

Effects of immunization with natural and recombinant lysine decarboxylase on canine gingivitis development

Periodontal disease, gingival inflammation (gingivitis) and periodontal attachment loss (periodontitis), causes tooth loss and susceptibility to chronic inflammation. Professionally scaling and cleaning the teeth regularly controls the disease, but is expensive in companion animals. Eikenella corrodens is common in canine oral cavities where it is a source of lysine decarboxylase (LDC). In human dental biofilms (plaques), LDC converts lysine to cadaverine and impairs the gingival epithelial barrier to bacteria. LDC vaccination may therefore retard gingivitis development. Year-old beagle dogs provided blood samples, and had weight and clinical measurements (biofilm and gingivitis) recorded. After scaling and cleaning, two dogs were immunized subcutaneously with 0.2mg native LDC from E. corrodens and 2 sets of four dogs with 0.2mg recombinant LDC purified from Escherichia coli. A third set of 4 dogs was immunized intranasally. Rehydragel(®), Emulsigen(®), Polygen™ or Carbigen™ were used as adjuvant. Four additional pairs of dogs were sham-immunized with each adjuvant alone (controls). Immunizations were repeated twice, 3 weeks apart, and clinical measurements were obtained after another 2 weeks, when the teeth were scaled and cleaned again. Tooth brushing was then stopped and the diet was changed from hard to soft chow. Clinical measurements were repeated after 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 weeks. Compared with sham-immunized dogs, gingivitis was reduced over all 8 weeks of soft diet after subcutaneous immunization with native LDC, or after intranasal immunization with recombinant LDC in Carbigen™, but for only 6 of the 8 weeks after subcutaneous immunization with recombinant LDC in Emulsigen(®) (repeated measures ANOVA). Subcutaneous vaccination induced a strong serum IgG antibody response that decreased during the soft diet period, whereas intranasal immunization induced a weak serum IgA antibody response that did not decrease. Immunization with recombinant LDC may provide protection from gingivitis if procedures are optimized.

Evaluation of a dental model for training veterinary students

Periodontal disease has deleterious effects on an animal's health and potentially serious implications for its welfare. Consequently, veterinarians frequently perform routine periodontal treatment in small-animal practice. One would therefore assume that small-animal dentistry would constitute a core component of a veterinary curriculum. However, most practitioners received little or no formal training in dentistry during their veterinary degrees, and the amount of instruction students currently receive is variable, often with limited opportunities to practice. At the Royal Veterinary College, a prototype dental model was developed to address the lack of practical training; it was made using ceramic tiles, silicone sealant, and grout to emulate teeth, gingiva, and calculus, respectively. A study was conducted with third-year veterinary students to compare the outcomes of learning to perform a professional dental cleaning using a model (group A) or a video (group B). Performance was assessed using an objective structured clinical examination. Students in group A scored significantly better than those in group B (p<.001). All students also completed a questionnaire evaluating attitudes toward the use of a dental model in learning dentistry-related skills. All students identified a model as a potentially valuable learning tool to supplement existing teaching methods and facilitate the acquisition of small-animal dentistry skills. The dental model has the potential to equip students with useful, practical skills in a safe and risk-free environment.