Intra- and inter-observer reliability of girth measurements of the neck, chest, and abdomen in dogs

Objective

This study aimed to assess intra- and inter-observer reliability of neck, chest, and abdominal girth measurements in dogs and to compare these measurements made with a measuring tape, equipped with or without a dynamometer.

Methods

The locations of the middle neck, cranial and widest chest, and cranial and caudal abdomen were measured individually by two observers in 16 dogs standing squarely at an examination table. Girth measurements were performed in triplicate with the other observer recording the data. All dogs underwent evaluation using a measuring tape equipped with a spring dynamometer, while a subgroup (n = 8) was also evaluated with a measuring tape without the dynamometer. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs), with a 95% confidence interval (CI), were computed to assess the intra- and inter-observer reliability for the measurements made with the measuring tape equipped with a spring dynamometer. Pearson's correlations (r) were used to compare the two methods: girth measurements performed with and without the dynamometer.

Results

Girth measurements at all locations demonstrated high intra-observer (0.967-0.999) and inter-observer (0.985-0.995) reliability. The correlations between measurements made with and without the dynamometer were high (r ≥ 0.996, p < 0.0001). Numerically higher girth values with numerically lower precision were recorded using the tape measure without the dynamometer, but only the girth of the cranial abdomen differed significantly between methods (p = 0.04).

Conclusion and clinical importance

Girth measurements were reliable across all locations, particularly in the cranial chest and caudal abdomen, which exhibited high precision both within and between the two observers. A tape measure loaded with a dynamometer is recommended, as measurements recorded with a tape measure only showed a tendency of higher girth values with lower precision. Future research should evaluate neck, chest, and abdominal girth measurements in overweight canine patients, as well as the usefulness of the method as a complement to clinical body condition assessment for tracking changes in body composition.

Effect of a weight loss diet with or without Spirulina supplementation on serum lipids and antioxidant capacity of overweight dogs

Obesity is a major health issue in dogs associated with disturbances in lipid metabolism and oxidative stress. Spirulina has been shown to have hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects in various animal species. No such data regarding dogs are available, however. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of a therapeutic high-protein, high-fiber weight loss diet, with or without Spirulina supplementation, on biochemical parameters of overweight dogs, with particular reference to serum lipids and plasma antioxidant capacity. Thirty-two dogs completed a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial in which they received either Spirulina (S) or placebo (P) tablets in a body weight-dependent amount for 12 weeks; at the same time, both groups were fed the same calorie-restricted diet. Dogs were weighed weekly and calorie restriction was adjusted accordingly to ensure a 1% body weight loss per week. Blood samples were collected at baseline (T0), after 6 weeks (T1), and after 12 weeks (T2). No difference in body weight loss (S: -11.9 ± 0.8%, P: -10.6 ± 0.8%, p = 0.229) was detected between groups at T2. After 6 weeks and an average weight loss of around 6% (S: -6.7 ± 0.6%, P: -5.9 ± 0.6, p = 0.276), significant reductions of serum total cholesterol, glucose, alkaline phosphatase, paraxonase-1 (all p < 0.0001) and gamma-glutamyltransferase (p < 0.018) were observed in both groups, regardless of supplementation. Plasma antioxidant capacity increased significantly in both groups at T2 (p = 0.0003). Serum triglycerides decreased significantly from T0 to T1 in the Spirulina group (p < 0.0001) but not in the placebo group (p = 0.28); as for the difference between groups, a non-significant trend (p = 0.098) was detected. A significantly higher percentage of dogs (p = 0.028) in the Spirulina group achieved a serum triglycerides reduction > 15% compared to baseline at T1 and > 30% at T2. A treatment effect (p = 0.0416) was found for bilirubin, which decreased only in the Spirulina group. In conclusion, a weight loss of around 6% achieved with a high-protein, high-fiber hypocaloric diet is sufficient to induce significant positive metabolic effects and improve lipid, glucose, and liver enzyme values. Plasma antioxidant capacity was tested in dogs undergoing a weight loss program for the first time, demonstrating that overweight individuals are in a deficient status and that a weight loss of around 10% is able to restore values comparable to those of healthy individuals. The results of this study suggest that Spirulina may manifest a hypotriglyceridemic effect in dogs, even if further research is needed to infer causation. The role Spirulina that supplementation plays in bilirubin metabolism and its related beneficial effect is also worth exploring.

Effects of a physical exercise programme on bodyweight, body condition score and chest, abdominal and thigh circumferences in dogs

BACKGROUND

Research on the effects of physical exercise on canine body composition is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a physical exercise programme on bodyweight, body condition score (BCS) and chest, abdominal and thigh circumferences in dogs. Twenty-one healthy dogs of different breeds exercised together with their owners during an eight-week programme consisting of jogging and strength exercises. Standardised measurements were performed in triplicates with a measuring tape on standing dogs. Chest circumference was measured at three anatomical locations, abdomen at two and thigh at one. Data on bodyweight, BCS (9-point scale) and circumferences were analysed with mixed model repeated measures analyses to evaluate changes after the programme and effects of target distance.

RESULTS

Seven dog owners choose a target distance of 2 km and 14 owners choose 5-10 km. Mean BCS decreased (P = 0.007) after the programme (5.1 ± 0.9 vs. 4.7 ± 0.6) but there was no effect of target distance. Almost all chest and abdominal circumference measurements decreased (P ≤ 0.007) with the 2 km group driving the reduction in chest circumference and the 5-10 km group driving the reduction in abdominal circumference. In contrast, thigh circumference (28.8 ± 0.4 vs. 30.2 ± 0.4) increased (P = 0.007) while bodyweight was maintained. There were positive correlations between BCS and abdominal/chest ratios before and after the programme (Pearson correlation; R square ≤ 0.43, P ≤ 0.0012) but the mean ratio remained constant.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicated a redistribution between total body fat and muscle mass in body composition of normal weight to slightly overweight dogs after the physical exercise programme. The use of bodyweight alone was not a reliable evaluation method to complement the BCS assessment. However, repeated measurements of chest, abdominal and thigh circumference might aid in the assessment of body composition in dogs performing physical exercise. Further research should include a control group and objective evaluations of total body fat and lean mass, in order to investigate the effectiveness of physical exercise as a freestanding method for decreasing BCS and increasing muscle mass in overweight dogs.

A pilot study of a joint outdoor exercise program for dog owners and dogs

Increasing levels of physical inactivity is a global burden for mankind and is also an emerging problem in companion dogs. In both humans and dogs, insufficient physical activity is associated with increased risk for noncommunicable diseases and impaired quality of life (QoL). The aim of the current pilot study was to evaluate effects of a joint outdoor exercise program for dog owners (n = 22) and dogs (n = 22) with focus on QoL and body measurements. Results indicate that an eight-week exercise intervention alone, with a target distance of at least 2 km twice a week, may be sufficient to significantly increase self-reported QoL and acceptance of bodily appearance in dog owners despite no reductions in body measurements. In dogs, a significantly reduced body condition score (BCS) was registered, despite no considerable changes in feeding. The increased owner motivation for continued joint exercise suggests potential for lifestyle changes, which could be investigated in future studies including control groups and long-term follow-ups. The importance of the human-animal bond as a success factor for increased mutual physical activity and health benefits in both dog owners and dogs is recommended to be studied in a more in-depth manner.

How Successful Are Veterinary Weight Management Plans for Canine Patients Experiencing Poor Welfare Due to Being Overweight and Obese?

Overweight and obesity is one of the most significant health and welfare issues affecting companion animals and are linked to several serious medical conditions, reduced welfare, and shortened lifespan. The number of overweight and obese pets increases every year. Overweight and obesity are associated with multiple chronic diseases. Underlying causes include human-related and animal-related factors. Veterinarians encounter overweight and obese canine patients in daily practice and they play an important role in weight management. This research examines the level of veterinary engagement and the success of veterinary management plans for overweight and obese canines over a five-year period. Electronic medical records (EMRs) were collected for 500 canine patients assessed as either overweight or obese and statistically analyzed for level of veterinary engagement (VE), weight loss success, prescription weight loss diet (RX) use, and comorbidities. The average age at the beginning of the study was 61.5 months. A starting Body Condition Score (BCS) of 6 or 7 was most common (87.2%). Twelve different small and large dog breeds were most highly represented (61.1%). Average weight loss rates were low and more dogs gained rather than lost weight (56.5% vs. 43.5%). While VE is important, this study suggests current VE levels are not adequate to successfully combat overweight and obesity or result in improved animal welfare.

The Effects of Fitness Training on Working Dog Behavior: Two Case Studies

Working dogs perform complex tasks that require both physical and behavioral soundness. Two case studies demonstrate how fitness training moderated arousal levels, facilitated training, and improved performance measures in different situations. Fitness training can be beneficial when integrated as part of a working dog's training regimen because it can have a significant influence on their overall health, behavior, and ability to perform their working role effectively.

Website Investigation of Pet Weight Management-Related Information and Services Offered by Ontario Veterinary Practices

Pet owners rely on information and advice from their veterinary practice to effectively manage their pet's weight. This study investigated weight management information and services displayed on practice websites in Ontario, Canada. Information collected from the websites of 50 randomly selected small and mixed-animal practices included practice and staff demographics and the type of weight management services, products, and information advertised or displayed. The most frequently advertised weight management service and product were nutritional counselling (34%) and therapeutic diets (25%), respectively. Current bodyweight measurement was advertised on just over half of the websites (54%), while physical therapy counselling was the least-advertised service (16%). Further statistical analyses were performed in an exploratory fashion to determine areas for future research. Binary logistic regression analyses were used to investigate the association between practice demographics and the type of weight management information advertised online. A maximum of two predictor variables were included in each regression model. Exploratory analyses indicated that when controlling for the number of veterinarians in each practice, having a higher number of veterinary technicians was associated with increased odds of a practice website advertising current bodyweight measurement by 80.1% (odds ratio (OR) = 1.80, p = 0.05). Additionally, when controlling the number of veterinary technicians, having a higher number of veterinarians was associated with increased odds of a practice website advertising sales of therapeutic diets by 119.0% (OR = 2.19, p = 0.04). When using corporate practices as reference, independently owned practices had decreased odds of advertising sales of treats and weight management accessories on their practice websites by 78.7% (OR = 0.21, p = 0.03). These preliminary results suggest that advertising weight management information is not prioritized on veterinary practice websites in Ontario, especially those with lower staff numbers. The findings of this study raise awareness on the current state of weight management promotion for pets on veterinary practice websites and highlight ways to improve upon a practice's online presence.

The 13C-bicarbonate technique as a tool for measurement of energy expenditure in overweight dogs undergoing body weight reduction and the effect of different dietary composition

Changes in body size and composition, i.e., body weight (BW) gain or loss, affect the daily energy expenditure (EE). To ensure an appropriate BW reduction and to find an efficient strategy to reduce and maintain a target BW, regular evaluations and adjustments of energy allowance are important. This study aimed to provide a detailed knowledge about the possible changes in resting EE using the oral 13C-bicarbonate technique (o13CBT) as a research tool in 16 overweight pet dogs undergoing BW reduction. Dietary composition (i.e., in % of dry matter [DM] being a high protein [33.3], low fat [9.6], and high crude fiber [18.0] diet [LFHFibre], and a high protein [37.9], high fat [52.0], carbohydrate-free diet [HFat]) during 16 wk of energy restriction were evaluated regarding effects on resting EE, rate of BW reduction, body composition, and plasma concentrations of metabolic hormones involved in energy metabolism and appetite regulation. The mean BW loss was higher (P < 0.05) for the dogs fed the LFHFibre diet (1.1%/wk) than that for dogs fed the HFat diet (0.8%/wk), but the total BW reduction of 14.6% and 12.0% of initial BW did not differ significantly (P > 0.05). Resting EE was lower (P < 0.02) after the BW reduction; 414 kJ (99 kcal)/kg BW0.75/d at the start (week 0) and 326 kJ (78 kcal)/kg BW0.75/d at the end (week 16) of the study. The BW reduction in both groups (P > 0.05) consisted of both fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM). Energy expenditure, calculated in relation to amount of FFM, was not significantly (P > 0.05) affected by BW reduction. Dietary composition did not significantly affect (P > 0.05) plasma concentrations of insulin, leptin, and ghrelin, and no effect (P > 0.05) of BW reduction was observed on hormone concentrations. In conclusion, the o13CBT proved to be a useful research method for studying short-term EE in overweight dogs. Even though all dogs lost BW, most dogs were still overweight at the end of the study. Due to a high individual variation among dogs, a longer experimental period with a larger sample size would be desirable.

Is Dog Owner Obesity a Risk Factor for Canine Obesity? A "One-Health" Study on Human-Animal Interaction in a Region with a High Prevalence of Obesity

Obesity in humans is a growing global problem and is one of the greatest public health challenges we face today. Most researchers agree that, as in humans, the incidence in the companion animal population is also increasing. The aim of this study was to evaluate the risk factors contributing to canine obesity in a region with a high rate of human obesity (Canary Islands, Spain), co-occurrence of obesogenic risk factors, and a canine population with a high percentage of unneutered dogs. We have focused on owner risk factors that promote obesity in humans, such as weight, lifestyle, nutritional habits, and low physical activity, among others. Thus, the human-animal interaction relationship that contributes to human obesity and influences canine obesity has been studied. A multicentre cross-sectional analytical study of 198 pairs of dogs from urban households and their owners was used. A multivariable logistic regression study was completed to analyse owner characteristics variables associated with canine obesity. This transdisciplinary study was conducted with physicians and veterinarians using a "One Health" approach. Our results suggest that, in a region of high obesogenic risk, obese/overweight dogs are primarily female, older than 6 years, and neutered. Being an overweight dog owner was found to be the most important factor in the occurrence of obesity in dogs. Owners of overweight dogs were mainly females, older than 40 years, who did not engage in any physical activity. A strong correlation has been found between dog owners with low levels of education and obesity in their dogs. We suggest that veterinarians should develop and design strategies to encourage pet owners to engage in physical activity with their dogs for the benefit of both.

Clinical Guide to Obesity and Nonherbal Nutraceuticals in Canine Orthopedic Conditions

The typical canine rehabilitation patient with orthopedic disease may differ in its nutritional needs, with the assumption that most patients will be on a complete and balanced commercial dog food that is not enriched with agents for ameliorating their condition. For a significant number of rehabilitation patients, obesity is a major issue where hypocaloric diet plans are often implemented and are covered extensively elsewhere (VCNA Small Animal Practice May 2021). The focus of this article will be implementation of physical activity or structured physical exercise protocols and how they might be used in combination with a typical hypocaloric diet plan, a diet low in calories. Considering the limited information regarding physical activity or structured exercise programs in dogs, a human comparative assessment of efficacy is fundamental as a baseline of information regarding typical interventions. In addition, many of these long-term rehabilitation cases typically exhibit osteoarthritis (OA) and as part of case management, there is a need to implement nutrient or nutraceutical intervention to either diminish the progression of OA or help with pain control measures, particularly for the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory intolerant patient. Nutraceutical intervention comes in many forms from botanicals to nutritional enhancement; botanicals will be covered elsewhere in this issue. This overview of nutraceuticals will cover nonbotanical interventions including fish oil, glucosamine/chondroitin, avocado/soybean unsaponifiables, undenatured collagen, green lipped mussel, and egg shell membrane supplementation.

Canine Geriatric Rehabilitation: Considerations and Strategies for Assessment, Functional Scoring, and Follow Up

Geriatric animals account for half of the pet population in the United States with their numbers increasing annually. Furthermore, a significant percentage of veterinary patients with movement limitations could be grossly categorized as geriatric and living within the end stage of their predicted lifespans. Because mobility is correlated to quality of life and time to death in aging dogs, a major goal in optimizing canine geriatric health is to improve functional movement. Within the geriatric population, identifying disabilities that affect daily living and quality of life may be used by the rehabilitation practitioner to provide stronger prognoses, treatment goals, and outcome measures. Examples of such means are described within this review. In human medicine, the concept of “optimal aging”, or “healthy aging”, has emerged in which inevitable detrimental age-related changes can be minimized or avoided at various levels of physical, mental, emotional, and social health. Both environment and genetics may influence aging. Identifying and improving environmental variables we can control remain a key component in optimizing aging. Furthermore, diagnosing and treating age related comorbidities common to older populations allows for improved quality of life and is often directly or indirectly affecting mobility. Obesity, sarcopenia, and a sedentary lifestyle are a trifecta of age-related morbidity common to both people and dogs. Healthy lifestyle choices including good nutrition and targeted exercise play key roles in reducing this morbidity and improving aging. Disablement models act as essential tools for creating more effective physiotherapy plans in an effort to counter dysfunction and disability. Within these models, functional testing represents a standard and validated means of scoring human geriatric function as well as monitoring response to therapy. Because of the great need in dogs, this review aims to provide a reasonable and testable standardized framework for canine functional scoring. We believe a complete assessment of canine geriatric patients should comprise of identifying environmental variables contributing to health status; diagnosing comorbidities related to disease and aging; and characterizing disability with standardized methods. Only through this process can we construct a comprehensive, reasonable, and targeted rehabilitation plan with appropriate follow up aimed at healthy aging.

A Formalized Method to Acclimate Dogs to Voluntary Treadmill Locomotion at Various Speeds and Inclines

The land treadmill is a multipurpose tool with a unique set of behavioral and physical benefits for training and assessing active dogs. Habituation to voluntary treadmill locomotion is crucial for training a dog or accurately assessing a dog's fitness on a treadmill. Therefore, a treadmill acclimation program was developed and evaluated with working dogs in training or working dogs performing detection research. Seven of eight naive dogs became acclimated to the treadmill using the protocol developed. Two previously experienced dogs successfully conducted an acclimation assessment to test for habituation to the treadmill. A muscle soreness protocol was created to evaluate the soreness developed during the acclimation program. This detailed protocol was successful in acclimating dogs to the treadmill at various safe speeds and inclines.

Effects of a flotation vest and water flow rate on limb kinematics of Siberian Huskies swimming against a current

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effects of a flotation vest (FV) and water flow rate (WFR) on limb kinematics of dogs swimming against a current.

ANIMALS

7 (1 male and 6 female) healthy adult Siberian Huskies.

PROCEDURES

Dogs were habituated to swim with and without an FV beside an investigator in a continuous-flow pool against WFRs up to 2.9 km/h. During each of 4 experimental sessions in a repeated-measures study, markers were wrapped around the right carpus and tarsus, and a video was recorded while each dog swam with or without an FV for about 2 minutes at each of 7 WFRs between 0 and 2.9 km/h when the WFR was incrementally decreased or increased. Motion tracking software was used to measure stroke excursion and frequency.

RESULTS

Stroke excursion varied more than frequency among all dogs and in response to changes in experimental conditions. The male dog and 1 female dog were unable to complete the study. For the remaining 5 dogs across all experimental conditions, mean tarsus excursion was 30% that of the carpus. Mean total excursion (sum of the excursion-frequency products for the carpus and tarsus) decreased when an FV was worn and increased with WFR by 69% and 19% when WFR was incrementally increased and decreased, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

In dogs, range of motion during swimming was greater for the carpus than tarsus, when an FV was not worn, and increased more with WFR when WFR was incrementally increased. Those factors should be considered during swimming-based rehabilitation.

Canine and Feline Obesity Management

Obesity and overweight have an impact on more than half of pet cats and dogs. Effective and team-based communication is essential for creating an effective weight loss plan. The diet should meet all essential nutrient requirements during energy/calorie restriction. There are several ways to initiate a weight loss plan, and regular monitoring is essential for determining if a plan is working or needs to be adjusted.

Why Can't I Resist Those "Puppy Dog" (or "Kitty Cat") Eyes? A Study of Owner Attachment and Factors Associated with Pet Obesity

Simple Summary

Attachment theory has become widely used in research on human-animal interactions. However, the majority of this research has examined how individual differences in attachment affect how humans seek care and comfort from animals. The current paper examines an additional component of attachment theory—the caregiving component. Specifically, the aim of the study was to understand how individual differences in attachment anxiety and avoidance predict factors associated with pet obesity including pet weight, body condition, daily treats, and daily interactions. An online survey with recruitment via social media captured the responses of dog and cat owners. As expected, all of the associations between owner attachment and factors associated with pet obesity were mediated by the owner’s concerns that a pet may negatively evaluate them and the owner self-reported caregiving and attentiveness. That said, the results indicate that higher levels of attachment anxiety were associated with dog and cat owners providing a greater number of daily treats and more daily interaction, and a larger body condition for dogs. In addition, higher levels of attachment avoidance were associated with dog (but not cat) owners giving fewer treats and less daily interaction. Interestingly, despite these relationships, pet weight was not associated with owner attachment. Although the effects presented in the present paper are relatively small, they are nonetheless important, as continuing to understand how differences in attachment anxiety and avoidance are related to care-giving behavior and pet obesity may provide for novel interventions that veterinarians can use to improve pet well-being and may provide avenues for future research.

Abstract

Attachment theory posits that patterns of interaction derived from the attachment system provide a starting point for understanding how people both receive and provide care. Extending this theory to human-animal interactions provides insights into how human psychology affects pets, such as pet obesity. The goal of this study was to determine how attachment anxiety and avoidance might contribute to pet obesity. We assessed 563 pet owners’ attachment-related anxiety and avoidance, as well as additional attachment-related constructs (emotional rejection, evaluation concern, caregiving, and attentiveness to a pet). We also assessed various factors associated with pet obesity, including weight, body condition, daily treats, and daily interaction. The results indicate that dog owners high in attachment anxiety are concerned about how their pet may evaluate them, leading to more caregiving and attentiveness that results in more treats given per day, and a larger body condition (but not weight). In addition, owners high in attachment avoidance may seek to downplay the possibility of the dog negatively evaluating them, thus providing more negligent care. These findings suggest that attachment plays a unique role in shaping the pet-caregiver relationship and influences various elements that contribute to pet obesity, particularly in dogs. As such, the findings may lend a novel perspective to strategies for reducing pet obesity and provide a framework for future research into pet health.

The dog as an exercise science animal model: a review of physiological and hematological effects of exercise conditions

[Purpose]

Exercise is a fundamental way to maintain and improve health and physical fitness. Many human studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of exercise on various biological parameters. However, studies investigating the effects of exercise in dogs are limited. This review summarized the current data from studies that examined the effects of different exercise conditions (treadmill vs. non-treadmill and acute vs. chronic) on physiological and hematological parameters in dogs.

[Methods]

Papers addressing the effects of exercise in dogs published from January 2000 to October 2020 were retrieved from the online databases of Scopus, Google Scholar, and PubMed and were selected and reviewed.

[Results]

The exercise conditions differentially affected physiological and hematological responses and adaptation in dogs. Therefore, the development and comprehensive evaluation of scientific exercise programs for dogs are necessary.

[Conclusion]

The dog would be a valuable exercise science animal model, and studies aiming at the optimal health, well-being, and quality of life of dogs need to be conducted.

Veterinary-prescribed physical activity promotes walking in healthy dogs and people

Background

Regular physical activity (PA) promotes health and can prevent and treat diseases among both humans and dogs. Unfortunately, most U.S. adults do not meet PA recommendations, and many dogs are also insufficiently active. Veterinary-prescribed PA programs have shown some success in increasing activity among overweight dogs, but the impacts of such programs have not yet been tested for efficacy among otherwise-healthy dogs and owners. In addition, although wearable devices that monitor PA and provide individuals with feedback (e.g., progress toward a daily step goal) can effectively increase human PA, it is unclear what impact similar wearable devices have on human and dog PA when the PA-monitoring devices are worn by dogs. The present study assessed the impact of an 8-week veterinary-prescribed PA program on activity and health among dogs and their owners, and randomized participants (n = 59) to two groups: one in which PA was measured but not visible to participants (n = 30), and one in which PA was measured and real time feedback was visible through a wearable device (n = 29).

Results

Participants in both groups showed significant PA increases over the course of the 8-week program. Biomedical testing performed at the veterinary clinic facilitated early diagnosis of systemic illness in one human participant. The frequency of hypertension in human participants decreased significantly from baseline to the end of the program (week 8). Other health indices (e.g., BMI in humans, body weight and BCS in dogs) improved, albeit not to a statistically significant extent, over the course of the program. There were no significant differences on the outcomes of interest between the two experimental conditions.

Conclusions

Veterinary-prescribed PA programs appear promising for increasing PA among insufficiently active but otherwise healthy dogs as well as their owners. Additional testing of veterinary-prescribed PA is warranted, particularly at other types of veterinary clinics (e.g., private practices). Incorporating wearable devices permitting owners to track canine PA did not appear necessary for obtaining these benefits; however, additional studies investigating alternative devices or different time periods may be warranted.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-020-02682-z.

What do Brazilian owners know about canine obesity and what risks does this knowledge generate?

Canine obesity is associated with genetic, environmental, and behavioural factors, with the latter including both the behaviour of the dog and the owner. Knowledge about owner perception of canine obesity and its treatment can inform the development of new strategies to help prevent and manage this disease. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the opinions of dog owners regarding canine obesity and weight management. Dog owners residing in the city of Sao Paulo (Brazil) completed a questionnaire, either at home or in the waiting rooms of 3 veterinary hospitals. Owners determined their dog's body condition score (BCS), and this was compared with BCS determined by a veterinarian. Questionnaire findings from dogs that were in overweight (BCS 6-7/9) or obese (BCS (8-9/9) condition were compared with those in ideal weight (4-5/9) using chi-square tests and odds ratios. A total of 926 dogs were included, of which 480 (52%), 317 (34%) and 129 (14%) were in ideal, overweight and obese condition, respectively. Many owners under-estimated their dog's weight status, with the proportion increasing as the dog's weight status increased (ideal 60/480, 13%; overweight 174/317, 55%; obese 88/129, 68%; P<0.001). Although most owners (890/926, 96%) believed that canine obesity could pose health risks, the proportion that disagreed increased as weight status increased (ideal 12/480, 2%; overweight 14/317, 4%; 10/129, 8%; P = 0.006). Finally, although most owners (880/926, 95%) stated that they would let their dog undergo weight management, only a minority (182/926; 20%) believed that a trained professional was needed, and they had various misperceptions including potential cost and what the strategies that would be effective. Based on the findings of this study, it would be advisable for veterinarians to spend time addressing these misperceptions, in the hope of both improving awareness of obesity and the outcomes of weight management.

Weight Loss After Obesity is Associated with Increased Food Motivation and Faster Weight Regain in Mice

OBJECTIVE

While changes in diet often result in short-term weight loss, weight loss is not typically maintained. It remains unclear why long-term weight loss is so difficult. It was hypothesized that obesity produces persistent changes in behavior that bias animals toward weight regain after weight loss.

METHODS

Mice were induced to gain weight with a high-fat diet for 6 weeks and then induced to lose this weight with a low-fat diet for 7 subsequent weeks. A control group was maintained on the low-fat diet for all 13 weeks. Activity was measured continuously with home cage activity monitors for the entire experiment. Motivation for sweetened food pellets was tested following weight loss. A separate group of mice was reexposed to a high-fat diet following 2, 4, or 8 weeks of withdrawal to assess the rate of weight regain.

RESULTS

Activity levels decreased as animals gained weight and partially recovered following weight loss. Motivation for sucrose pellets was persistently heightened after weight loss. Consistent with these behavioral changes, mice also regained weight at a faster rate when reexposed to a high-fat diet after a period of weight loss.

CONCLUSIONS

Weight loss after obesity was associated with increased motivation for palatable food and an increased rate of weight regain.

Evaluation of a collar-mounted accelerometer for detecting seizure activity in dogs

Background

The majority of dogs with idiopathic epilepsy continue to have seizures despite appropriate treatment.

Objectives

To assess the use of a commercially available, collar‐mounted accelerometer to detect generalized seizures in dogs.

Animals

Twenty two client‐owned dogs with idiopathic epilepsy.

Methods

Six‐month prospective clinical study during which dogs wore a collar‐mounted accelerometer. Seizure documentation was based on owner observations and video recordings. The accelerometer used a predefined algorithm to detect seizures in the first study phase, and an individualized algorithm in the second study phase. Caregivers completed a quality of life (QoL) questionnaire at the initial and final study visit.

Results

Using the predefined algorithm, the accelerometer detected seizures with a sensitivity of 18.6% (95% CI [13.4%, 23.8%]) and mean false detection rate of 0.096/day. Values did not change significantly with use of an individualized algorithm (sensitivity 22.1%, 95% CI [15.1%, 29.0%]; false detection rate 0.054/day). Mean composite QoL score was significantly improved at study completion (50.42) compared to study initiation (39.53; P = .005), and this change was moderately correlated with a change in weekly exercise (r = 0.46, P = .05).

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Generalized seizures in dogs can be detected with a collar‐mounted accelerometer, but the overall sensitivity is low.

Slower, shorter, sadder: a qualitative study exploring how dog walks change when the canine participant develops osteoarthritis

Background

Dog walking may have multiple physical and mental health advantages, but not all dog owners appear to benefit. Dog health is a described barrier to dog walking activity, but specific causes and impacts of reduced exercise in owners of dogs with health problems have not previously been reported. The current study used a qualitative methodology to explore the impact of canine osteoarthritis on dog walking activity.

Methods

Owners of dogs with osteoarthritis living in the United Kingdom (UK) were recruited through veterinary practices for semi-structured interview about life with an osteoarthritic dog. Participants were asked to reflect on walks that they had taken with their dog before he/she developed osteoarthritis, and to describe how those walks had changed. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and thematic analysis was used to construct key themes.

Results

Forty owners of 35 osteoarthritic dogs were interviewed. Prior to their dog’s development of osteoarthritis, dog walking distance, speed and location were usually decided by the owner to satisfy the needs and enjoyment of dog and walker. A diagnosis of canine osteoarthritis led to both dogs and their owners altering the walks undertaken. Walks were typically slower, shorter and limited to locations where physical infrastructure, underfoot surface and gradients were perceived by the owner to be navigable by their dog. Most owners did not go on additional walks without their dog due to feelings of guilt and because walking without a dog was less enjoyable. Many owners described negative effects on their own physical health and diminished enjoyment of walking as a result of their dog’s condition.

Conclusion

Our research suggests that osteoarthritic dogs may reduce the walking exercise their owners are able or willing to undertake. Since osteoarthritis is a common condition in older dogs, this is an important finding for those advocating dog ownership as a positive public health intervention. Strategies may be needed to ensure that owners of dogs that develop physical incapacities can continue to enjoy the health benefits they previously associated with dog walking. Future studies investigating dog walking activity should ensure that the health status of the dog has been considered.

Factors associated with failure of dog's weight loss programmes

BACKGROUND

Canine obesity is the cause of several health issues, and may predispose other diseases, such as orthopaedic disorders, endocrinopathies, metabolic abnormalities and cardiorespiratory disease which can lead to a decreased quality of life and reduced lifespan. Dog are considered overweight when their body weight is ≥15% above their ideal body weight, and as obese when their body weight exceeds 30% of optimal. Prevalence of canine obesity is estimated to be around 5%-20%, and up to 30%-40% when all overweight dogs are considered. Treatment is based on weight loss programmes, focused on caloric restriction associated with exercise. However, success rate of treatment is low.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate the reasons for weight loss failure of obese dogs during treatment with low-calorie diets.

METHODS

Records of obese dogs undergoing weight loss programmes between May 2014 and May 2017, assessed by a team specialized in veterinary nutrition, were retrospectively evaluated. Dogs were classified according to weekly weight loss rate (WWLR) (<1%, between 1% and 2%, and more than 2%) and owner compliance with a dietary prescription and physical activity recommendations.

RESULTS

The mean WWLR was not satisfactory (<1%) in 64.4% (n = 47/73) of dogs. Regarding owner compliance with the dietary prescription, 44.7% (n = 21/47) of owners did not follow diet prescriptions and physical activity recommendations for their dogs. There was a significant association (p = .01) between compliance of owners and satisfactory weight loss rate; however, there was no association between weight loss success, diet composition sex, reproductive status, age of the dogs and their physical activity (p ≥ .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Non-compliance represents a great challenge in the treatment of canine obesity, and may be of more importance than other aspects.

Impact of feeding method on overall activity of indoor, client-owned dogs

OBJECTIVE

To compare the total daily activity time, walking time and running time using food-dispensing toys versus bowls in a group of client-owned, primarily indoor dogs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A two-way, two period, randomised repeated measures mixed-effects crossover study performed on 26 client-owned, primarily indoor dogs.

RESULTS

Toy feeding increased average daily total activity time by 12% and walking time by 26%. Average daily total activity time and walking time were reduced by 8 and 7% respectively with each increase in year of age. Gender, body condition and muscle condition had no significant effect on average daily total activity or walking time. Toy feeding, time, their interaction, age, gender, body condition and muscle condition had no significant effect on average daily running time.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Feeding toys may be helpful during weight loss programs to achieve the goal of increasing daily exercise duration in dogs that need to lose weight.

Factors associated with overweight cats successfully completing a diet-based weight loss programme: an observational study

BACKGROUND

The most common approach for controlled weight loss in cats is dietary caloric restriction, using a purpose-formulated diet. Most previous studies have only assessed short-term outcomes, and no previous study has examined overall success (i.e. odds of reaching target weight). The aim of this study was to determine the factors associated with overweight cats successfully completing a diet-based weight loss programme to reach target weight.

RESULTS

Sixty-two cats were included, and 28 (45%) completed their weight loss programme. The remaining 34 cats (55%) did not reach target weight, of which 2 (3%) were euthanised for unrelated reasons. Reasons for cats stopping the programme prematurely included inability to contact owner (n = 19), owner requested that the programme be completed prior to reaching target weight (n = 5), the cat developed another illness (n = 3), refusal to comply with requirements for weight management (n = 2), owner illness (n = 2), and personal issues of the owner (n = 1). Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that rate of weight loss and weight loss required were positively (odds ratio [OR] 157.81, 95% confidence interval [CI] 10.00-2492.67) and negatively (OR 0.89, 95% CI 0.81-0.98) associated with the odds of completing the weight loss programme, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Future studies should consider developing better methods of supporting the owners of the most obese cats during weight management, since these cats are least likely to complete reach target weight.

Promoting Outdoor Physical Activity for People and Pets: Opportunities for Veterinarians to Engage in Public Health

Regular physical activity (PA) is a health promoting behavior that transcends species. The collective evidence of a positive relationship between PA and health in both people and animals suggests that implementation of outdoor, dog-associated activities to increase PA may synergistically enhance both human and dog health. A systematic literature review was performed to identify research investigating objective, quantitative health outcomes in both dogs and people exercising together. Within the confines of the search, only 2 studies fulfilled the criteria for complete review. One study was administered through a veterinary clinic and another through a human health care provider. Both studies focused on obesity treatment, either for the dog or for both the dog and the owner. Collectively this work demonstrates the feasibility of simultaneously promoting health in both groups through PA; however there are limitations to the generalizability of the findings. Additional research is needed to further investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of PA promotion in primary care veterinary clinics as well as the use of animal-assisted PA promotion as a preventative, not just therapeutic, tool. As diseases that can be prevented, at least in part, by regular PA are now the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in developed countries, veterinarians have the potential to significantly impact not only the health of their patients, but also that of the public.

An open-label randomised clinical trial to compare the efficacy of dietary caloric restriction and physical activity for weight loss in overweight pet dogs

Canine obesity is usually managed with a combination of dietary caloric restriction and increasing physical activity, but no previous study has compared both of these strategies in a prospective randomised controlled trial. Thirteen overweight dogs (body condition score 6-9/9) were randomised to one of two interventions: dietary caloric restriction or physical activity. The dietary caloric restriction intervention comprised feeding a therapeutic weight loss diet, while the physical activity intervention comprised increasing the dog's current physical activity pattern by at least a third. The primary outcome measure was change in body weight, while secondary outcome measures included change in neck, thorax and abdominal circumference and change in physical activity measured by triaxial accelerometer. Bodyweight decreased significantly with the dietary caloric restriction (median -10% of starting body weight [SBW], 5 to -12%; P=0.028) but not with the physical activity intervention (-2% SBW, +3% to -6%; P=0.107). Abdominal circumference (dietary caloric restriction: median -12.0%; physical activity: median -7.8%, P=0.016) and thoracic circumference (dietary caloric restriction: median -7.5%, P=0.031; physical activity: median -3.6%, P=0.031) changed significantly in both groups. There was no change in activity levels within the dietary caloric restriction group, but vigorous activity increased significantly in the physical activity group (P=0.016). Dietary caloric restriction was more effective than physical activity for controlled weight loss in overweight pet dogs. Although advising owners to increase their dog's activity by a third led to a modest increase in measured vigorous physical activity, this was insufficient to promote weight loss on its own.

How effective are interventions designed to help owners to change their behaviour so as to manage the weight of their companion dogs? A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The present review sought to evaluate whether - and to what extent - targeting owners' behaviour is an effective way to reduce the problem of overweight and obesity among companion dogs.

METHODS

A systematic search of electronic databases identified 14 studies that evaluated the effect of an intervention targeting owners' behaviour on (i) the owner's behaviour or (ii) the weight, (iii) body fat, or (iv) body condition of the dog. We coded aspects of the study design (e.g., the outcome variable), intervention (e.g., use of theory, specific behaviour change techniques or BCTs, inclusion of nutritional intervention alongside the behavioural intervention), and sample (e.g., age, gender, and weight of the dogs at baseline) that could influence the effect sizes.

RESULTS

The interventions had, on average, a medium sized effect on outcomes (d₊ = 0.59, 95% CI: 0.23 to 0.96, k = 14, N = 384). The effect sizes from the primary studies were relatively homogenous, Q(13) = 12.10, p =  .52 and the nature of the intervention, methodological and sample characteristics did not moderate the effect sizes.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The findings of the review suggest that targeting owners' behaviour can be an effective way to reduce overweight and obesity among companion dogs. However, this conclusion is based on a limited number of studies and so we hope that the present findings serve as the impetus for further research in this area.

Efeito de diferentes intensidades de exercício em esteira sobre os parâmetros eletrocardiográficos de cães hígidos

RESUMO Objetivou-se a padronização de testes de exercício de alta e baixa intensidades em esteira, bem como a avaliação do eletrocardiograma de cães submetidos a esses testes. Para tal fim, sete cães da raça Australian Cattle Dog e quatro da raça Border Collie clinicamente saudáveis foram submetidos a dois testes de exercício em esteira, com pelo menos sete dias de intervalo: T1 - teste de exercício de alta intensidade e curta duração, e T2 - teste de exercício de baixa intensidade e longa duração. A amplitude e a duração de ondas e intervalos foram avaliadas no momento antes do exercício (M0) e nos momentos imediatamente após o término dos testes (MPE) e 30 minutos após (M30). A frequência e o ritmo cardíacos foram avaliados antes dos testes e continuamente por 30 minutos após o término do exercício. Verificou-se diferença significativa somente para a duração do intervalo QT em M30 em T1, além de algumas arritmias, como complexos atriais e ventriculares prematuros isolados em três animais após o teste T1, e em quatro após T2. Os testes de exercício foram adequados para promover estimulação simpática nos cães, contudo não causaram alterações significativas no eletrocardiograma, provavelmente em razão do excelente condicionamento físico dos animais.

An international multi-centre cohort study of weight loss in overweight cats: Differences in outcome in different geographical locations

Introduction

Feline obesity is a worldwide concern which has recently been formally classified as a disease by the veterinary community. Management involves invoking controlled weight loss by feeding a purpose-formulated food in restricted quantities and altering physical activity. Most weight loss studies conducted in cats have been undertaken in research cat colonies from single geographic locations. The aim of this multi-centre cohort study was to determine the efficacy of a short-term dietary weight loss intervention in overweight pet cats across a range of geographical locations globally.

Materials and methods

A 3-month (median 13 weeks, inter-quartile range [IQR] 12–15 weeks) weight loss programme was conducted at 188 veterinary practices in 22 countries, and involving 730 cats, 413 of which completed the programme and had complete data available. All were fed commercially available dry or wet weight loss diets, and median energy intake was 53 kcal/kg BW^0.711/day. The Royal Canin Ethics Committee approved the study, and owners gave informed consent. Owners completed behavioural questionnaires assessing begging, physical activity and quality of life (QOL). Linear mixed models were used to assess the respective influence of time, age, and initial body condition score (BCS) on weight loss and behavioural observations.

Results

At baseline, median age was 72 months (range 12–200 months) and median BCS was 8 (range 7–9). In all, 402/413 cats (97%) lost weight (mean 10.6±6.3%) during the programme at a rate of 0.8 ±0.50%/week. Based upon owner questionnaires, activity and QOL improved (both P<0.001), while begging behaviour decreased (P<0.001) during weight loss. The main factor influencing percentage weight loss was geographical location (P<0.001), with cats in North America losing less weight (median 7.2%, IQR: 4.4–10.4%) than those in both Europe (10.7%, 6-8-15.4%) and South America (10.0%, 6.2–15.4%). Differences in weight loss were also observed amongst countries (P<0.001), with cats in Argentina, Germany, and Italy losing more weight than cats in the USA, and cats in Germany also losing more weight than cats in Portugal.

Discussion/conclusion

Most of the overweight cats enrolled in this international multi-centre study successfully lost weight. The reason for the differences in percentage weight loss amongst geographical locations requires further study.

Persistent effects of obesity: a neuroplasticity hypothesis

The obesity epidemic is a leading cause of health problems in the United States, increasing the risk of cardiovascular, endocrine, and psychiatric diseases. Although many people lose weight through changes in diet and lifestyle, keeping the weight off remains a challenge. Here, we discuss a hypothesis that seeks to explain why obesity is so persistent. There is a great degree of overlap in the circuits implicated in substance use disorder and obesity, and neural plasticity of these circuits in response to drugs of abuse is well documented. We hypothesize that obesity is also associated with neural plasticity in these circuits, and this may underlie persistent changes in behavior, energy balance, and body weight. Here, we discuss how obesity-associated reductions in motivation and physical activity may be rooted in neurophysiological alterations in these circuits. Such plasticity may alter how humans and animals use, expend, and store energy, even after weight loss.

Gut microbiota composition may relate to weight loss rate in obese pet dogs

Obese dogs seem to have a different gut microbiome (GM) composition compared to lean dogs, and in humans, GM composition may negatively impact the ability to lose weight in some individuals. The purpose of this study was to investigate the interaction between exercise, weight-loss and the composition of GM in dogs. Eighteen obese pet dogs were recruited for a 12-week weight-loss intervention. All dogs were fed restrictively with a commercial high-protein/high-fibre dry diet, and eight of these dogs were enrolled in an exercise program in addition to the diet intervention. Faecal samples were collected and the dogs were weighed at week 0, week 6 and week 12. GM composition was determined using MiSeq-based tag-encoded 16S rRNA gene high-throughput amplicon sequencing, and concentrations of short chain fatty acids (SCFA) by gas-liquid chromatography. Total weight loss, food allowance and GM were not changed by exercise inclusion. However, Megamonas abundance negatively correlated with weight loss rate and Ruminococcaceae relative abundance was lower at 12 weeks in dogs with a faster weight loss rate (≥1% per week) compared with slower weight loss rate (<1% per week) independent of exercise. Acetic and propionic acid concentrations decreased in the dogs with a faster weight loss rate. Members of Megamonas and Ruminococcaceae produce acetic and propionic acids and we therefore interpret that having a GM that favour SCFA production may negatively affect weight loss rate in dogs. Weight loss rate in dogs may be related to the composition of the GM and its production of metabolites.

Assessment of agreement among diplomates of the American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia for scoring the recovery of horses from anesthesia by use of subjective grading scales and development of a system for evaluation of the recovery of horses from anesthesia by use of accelerometry

OBJECTIVE To evaluate agreement among diplomates of the American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia for scores determined by use of a simple descriptive scale (SDS) or a composite grading scale (CGS) for quality of recovery of horses from anesthesia and to investigate use of 3-axis accelerometry (3AA) for objective evaluation of recovery. ANIMALS 12 healthy adult horses. PROCEDURES Horses were fitted with a 3AA device and then were anesthetized. Eight diplomates evaluated recovery by use of an SDS, and 7 other diplomates evaluated recovery by use of a CGS. Agreement was tested with κ and AC1 statistics for the SDS and an ANOVA for the CGS. A library of mathematical models was used to map 3AA data against CGS scores. RESULTS Agreement among diplomates using the SDS was slight (κ = 0.19; AC1 = 0.22). The CGS scores differed significantly among diplomates. Best fit of 3AA data against CGS scores yielded the following equation: RS = 9.998 × SG^0.633 × ∑UG^0.174, where RS is a horse's recovery score determined with 3AA, SG is acceleration of the successful attempt to stand, and ∑UG is the sum of accelerations of unsuccessful attempts to stand. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Subjective scoring of recovery of horses from anesthesia resulted in poor agreement among diplomates. Subjective scoring may lead to differences in conclusions about recovery quality; thus, there is a need for an objective scoring method. The 3AA system removed subjective bias in evaluations of recovery of horses and warrants further study.

Success of a weight loss plan for overweight dogs: The results of an international weight loss study

INTRODUCTION

Obesity is a global concern in dogs with an increasing prevalence, and effective weight loss solutions are required that work in different geographical regions. The main objective was to conduct an international, multi-centre, weight loss trial to determine the efficacy of a dietary weight loss intervention in obese pet dogs.

METHODS

A 3-month prospective observational cohort study of weight loss in 926 overweight dogs was conducted at 340 veterinary practices in 27 countries. Commercially available dry or wet weight loss diets were used, with the initial energy allocation being 250-335 kJ/kg target body weight0.75/day (60-80 kcal/kg target body weight0.75/day) depending on sex and neuter status. The primary outcome measure was percentage weight loss; the main secondary outcomes were changes in activity, quality of life, and food-seeking behaviour, which were subjectively determined from owner descriptions.

RESULTS

At baseline, median (range) age was 74 (12 to 193) months and median body condition score was 8 (range 7-9). 896 of the 926 dogs (97%) lost weight, with mean weight loss being 11.4 ±5.84%. Sexually intact dogs lost more weight than neutered dogs (P = 0.001), whilst female dogs lost more weight than male dogs (P = 0.007), with the difference being more pronounced in North and South American dogs (median [Q1, Q3]: female: 11.5% [8.5%, 14.5%]; male: 9.1% [6.3%, 12.1%], P = 0.053) compared with those from Europe (female: 12.3% [8.9%, 14.9%]; male: 10.9% [8.6%, 15.4%]). Finally, subjective scores for activity (P<0.001) and quality of life (P<0.001) increased sequentially, whilst scores for food-seeking behaviour decreased sequentially (P<0.001) during the study.

CONCLUSION

This is the largest international multi-centre weight loss study conducted to date in obese dogs. Most dogs lost a clinically significant amount of weight, although there were notable differences between dogs of different sex, neuter status and in different geographical locations.

Immunometabolic parameters in overweight dogs during weight loss with or without an exercise program

The influence of physical activity on metabolic health in overweight dogs is unknown. This study was conducted to evaluate biomarkers of immunometabolic health in relation to changes in physical activity and adiposity. Client-owned overweight dogs participated in a 12-wk intervention based on caloric restriction combined with a training program (fitness and diet [FD] group, n = 8), or caloric restriction alone (diet-only [DO] group, n = 8). Physical activity was monitored by accelerometry. All dogs were fed the same diet and achieved similar weight loss. Fasting blood samples were collected before and after 6- and 12-wk intervention. Insulin resistance was evaluated from plasma insulin and C-peptide as well as homeostasis model assessment. Inflammation and dyslipidemia were evaluated from circulating leptin, adiponectin, C-reactive protein (CRP), monocyte chemoattractant factor-1 (MCP-1), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and cholesterol. Accelerometer counts in both groups were high compared with previous reports of physical activity in overweight dogs. No difference in blood parameters was evident between groups, evaluated by linear mixed-effects model (P > 0.05). Within the groups, the following changes were significant by t-test (P < 0.05): leptin decreased in both groups. Within the FD group, IL-8, MCP-1, and CRP decreased at 6 wk and IL-8 and cholesterol at 12 wk. Within the DO group, C-peptide and HOMA decreased at 6 wk and C-peptide at 12 wk. We conclude that, for both groups, weight loss resulted in minor indications of improved immunometabolic health, whereas this level of physical activity did not add further benefits.

Exercise training of dogs with myxomatous valve disease

ABSTRACT The present study has the objective of evaluating the effects of exercise training, using moderate intensity walking (60 to 80% of maximum heart rate), from 30 to 50 minutes, three times a week, in alternate days, during eight weeks, on heart rate variability in dogs with myxomatous valve disease (MVD). For that, 20 dogs in stages B1 (1), B2 (14) and C2 (5) of MVD (ACVIM classification) were divided into untrained control group (CG, n=9) and training group (TG, n=11), and assessed at baseline (T0), after four (T1) and eight weeks (T2). Only one B1 and five B2 dogs completed the training program. In the time domain, the rMSSD was greater in TG in T1 (155,5+42,07) and T2 (199,8+83,54) than CG (T1:91,17+35,79 and T2:88,17+57,51). In the frequency domain, the variable High Frequency (HF) increased in TG in T1 (30950+25810) and T2 (40300+33870) when compared to the CG (T1:19090+23210 and T2:18810+22200) and within the group TG in T2 in relation to T0 (29340+20950). The proposed walking protocol is concluded to have increased the rMSSD and HF variables in TG, representing an increase of the parasympathetic tonus, justifying the indication of this therapy in B1 and B2 stages of MVD.

Do Dopaminergic Impairments Underlie Physical Inactivity in People with Obesity?

Obesity is associated with physical inactivity, which exacerbates the negative health consequences of obesity. Despite a wide consensus that people with obesity should exercise more, there are few effective methods for increasing physical activity in people with obesity. This lack is reflected in our limited understanding of the cellular and molecular causes of physical inactivity in obesity. We hypothesize that impairments in dopamine signaling contribute to physical inactivity in people with obesity, as in classic movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease. Here, we review two lines of evidence supporting this hypothesis: (1) chronic exposure to obesogenic diets has been linked to impairments in dopamine synthesis, release, and receptor function, particularly in the striatum, and (2) striatal dopamine is necessary for the proper control of movement. Identifying the biological determinants of physical inactivity may lead to more effective strategies for increasing physical activity in people with obesity, as well as improve our understanding of why it is difficult for people with obesity to alter their levels of physical activity.

Obesity, Exercise and Orthopedic Disease

Osteoarthritis is common among aging canine and feline patients. The incidence and severity of clinical lameness are closely correlated to body condition in overweight and obese patients. Excessive adiposity may result in incongruous and excessive mechanical loading that worsens clinical signs in affected patients. Data suggest a potential link between adipokines, obesity-related inflammation, and a worsening of the underlying pathology. Similarly, abnormal physical stress and generalized systemic inflammation propagated by obesity contribute to neurologic signs associated with intervertebral disc disease. Weight loss and exercise are critical to ameliorating the pain and impaired mobility of affected animals.

Obesity Treatment: Environment and Behavior Modification

Obesity is commonly encountered in veterinary patients. Although there are various published dietary approaches to achieving weight loss, successful long-term prevention of weight regain has proven elusive. Adding environmental and behavioral treatment strategies to a weight loss plan may help the veterinary team, the pet, and the pet owner maximize the effectiveness of the program. Because the owner directly affects the environment and behavior of the pet undergoing a weight loss plan, treatment strategies with an emphasis on owner involvement is the focus of this review. Veterinary use of the 5 A's behavioral counseling approach with the pet owner is discussed.