Embedded-Figures Test scores among five samples of aged persons

Cognitive Differentiation in a Geriatric Population

This study tested the differentiation hypothesis in a geriatric population. 94 male, elderly patients were administered the Colored Progressive Matrices (a test of intellectual ability), the Children's Embedded-figures Test, and a socializing scale. A correlation of 0.58 ( p < .01) between field dependence and intellectual ability was similar to that previously obtained with younger age groups. A positive correlation of 0.22 ( p < .05) between field dependence and socializing was contrary to theoretical expectation.

Embedded Figures Test in Old Age: A Psychometric Note

Normative data, item difficulty, and reliability of the Embedded Figures Test for a sample of 71 aged subjects (35 males, 36 females) are given. The usefulness of the material in extended studies on the causes of increased field-dependence in old age is outlined.

Sensorimotor and cognitive factors associated with the age-related increase of visual field dependence: a cross-sectional study

Reliance on the visual frame of reference for spatial orientation (or visual field dependence) has been reported to increase with age. This has implications on old adults' daily living tasks as it affects stability, attention, and adaptation capacities. However, the nature and underlying mechanisms of this increase are not well defined. We investigated sensorimotor and cognitive factors possibly associated with increased visual field dependence in old age, by considering functions that are both known to degrade with age and important for spatial orientation and sensorimotor control: reliance on the (somatosensory-based) egocentric frame of reference, visual fixation stability, and attentional processing of complex visual scenes (useful field of view, UFOV). Twenty young, 18 middle-aged, and 20 old adults completed a visual examination, three tests of visual field dependence (RFT, RDT, and GEFT), a test of egocentric dependence (subjective vertical estimation with the body erect and tilted at 70°), a visual fixation task, and a test of visual attentional processing (UFOV®). Increased visual field dependence with age was associated with reduced egocentric dependence, visual fixation stability, and visual attentional processing. In addition, visual fixation instability and reduced UFOV were correlated. Results of middle-aged adults fell between those of the young and old, revealing the progressive nature of the age effects we evaluated. We discuss results in terms of reference frame selection with respect to ageing as well as visual and non-visual information processing. Inter-individual differences amongst old adults are highlighted and discussed with respect to the functionality of increased visual field dependence.

Tracking Gaze of Patients with Visuospatial Neglect

Video eye-tracking appears to have great utility in the investigation and assessment of visuospatial neglect, and it may also have important benefits to intervention. Applications include the use of desktop eye-tracking to quantify neglect and its sensitivity to social cues, acquisition of eye-tracking data during performance of clinical and experimental assessment tasks, and trials of a wireless system to track the gaze of patients carrying out activities of daily living. Displays that provide differential feedback contingent on gaze locus may be particularly applicable to computer-aided training. If eye-tracking proves to be useful for monitoring and for automatic delivery of training, it can eventually be incorporated into telerehabilitation.

Spatial- versus object-oriented architectural environments: preference and perception

This study examined changes in perceptual response and preference a specific category of architectural environment by age groups. Understanding relationships among age, perception, and preference is important in creating more appropriate environments. The hypothesis was that individuals who score field-dependent on an Embedded Figures Test would prefer architectural environments which support spatial orientation, while individuals who are field-independent would prefer environments without information on spatial organization or an object-oriented space. It was also hypothesized that children and elderly persons would score more field-dependent and prefer spatially orienting spaces. 64 subjects ages 4 to 85 years were recruited from local schools, various organizations for seniors and adults, given the Embedded Figures Test to measure field dependence, and were compared. Their scores were compared by preference for one of the two environments. Hypotheses were not supported for the spaces overall, however, clear patterns regarding seating preference were identified. Children and seniors had significantly more field-dependent preferences.

Field dependence in the institutionalized elderly

The institutional-inducement hypothesis of field dependence regression in the elderly was assessed by administering the Children's Embedded Figures Test (CEFT) to a group of elderly upon admission to a nursing home and to a group of community-living elderly. Both groups were retested four months later. The institutionalized group exhibited significantly lower CEFT scores on initial testing than the community-living group. In addition, the CEFT scores for the institutionalized group declined significantly from pretest to posttest. The results suggested that greater field dependence in the institutionalized elderly may be due to pre-institutional dependence regression that continues after institutionalization. Additional measures of mental status and activity levels were also lower in the institutionalized group upon admission supporting a pre-institutional generalized regression effect.

Relationship of stress and ego energy to field-dependent perception in older adults

Using a sample of 120 adults between the ages of 55 and 75 yr., the relationships between stress of life change, ego energy, and field-dependent perception were studied. Respondents completed the Schedule of Recent Events, the Taft Ego Permissiveness Questionnaire, and the Children's Embedded Figures Test. Pearson correlations and multiple regression analysis were applied to the data. Supported were predictions of a negative relationship between stress of life events and ego energy, a positive relationship between ego energy and field-dependent perception, and a negative relationship between stress of life events and field-dependent perception.

Age and field independence among women

Age and the relationship to field independence, as measured by the Embedded Figures Test (EFT), among a sample of 160 creative women was studied. Comparisons were made between the mean EFT scores of creatine women and the mean scores of a sample of women not selected for creativity and the mean scores of two samples of men. Creative women were shown to be more field independent than women not selected for creativity and as field independence as two samples of younger men. A small but significant correlation between age and field independence was found. Older women, creative or not creative, were less field independent than younger women.

The estimation of short time intervals as a function of age and metronome pacing

The accuracy of estimation of short time intervals was studied in old institutionalized and young college male and female participants as a function of three levels of audible background metronome rate (0, 40 and 90 beats/min). The main effects of metronome and interval length, as well as the age by metronome rate interaction, were significant. Unlike the young participants, the time judgments of the older participants were significantly and systematically determined by metronome rate. These results are consistent with the notion of increased field-dependence among older persons and suggest that their greater social conformity and their inability to ignore irrelevant stimuli might also be explicable in the same theoretical terms.

Effect of practice and training in spatial skills on embedded figures scores of males and females

The effect of practice and training in spatial skills on scores obtained by male and female students on the Embedded Figures Test was examined. Forms A and B were administered 6 wk. apart to three groups of subjects (ns = 28, 27, 27) enrolled in drafting, mathematics, and liberal arts courses. During the pretest-posttest period the drafting students received training while the other two groups served as controls. Analysis indicated (1) no initial sex difference in test scores; (2) liberal arts students differed significantly from drafting and mathematics students, but there was no significant difference between the last two groups; (3) all groups improved with practice; (4) women receiving training improved more than women who did not; (5) there was a trend toward women receiving spatial training scoring more poorly than males receiving training on the pretest, but there was no significant difference on the posttest. These results suggest that sex differences in embedded-figures scores found by many previous experimenters may have been associated with differences in prior experience in spatial skills and by a confounding of sex with area of academic study.

The effects of age on perceptual problem-solving strategies

Witkin's Embedded Figures Test (EFT) was used to measure the changes with age in field dependence and problem-solving ability Qualitative data concerning problem-solving strategies and quantitative data were collected. EFT was administered to 12 females in each of the following decades: 20s, 30s, 40s, 50s, 60, 70s. All subjects were moderately to well educated, healthy, and relatively active members of the community. All had at least 20/33 corrected or uncorrected vision. An interview was held with each participant after completion of the EFT. ANOVA of time scores indicated that significantly (p less than 0.01) more time is needed to solve the items with an increase in age; a Tukey (a) test revealed a significant (p less than 0.05) increase between the 40s and 60s age groups. With an increase in age a significant (p less than 0.01) decline in the number of items solved was found. Partial correlations revealed that age is the most important factor, vis-á-vis general intelligence, visual acuity, and the personality factors measured by the Eysenck Personality Inventory. The relative stability of performance up through 49 and after 50 implies a decline in field independence rather than in higher-order cognitive processes.

A review of age changes in perceptual information processing ability with regard to driving

Age related changes in the sensory modalities of hearing and vision, along with changes in the information processing abilities of selective attention, perceptual style, and perceptual-motor reaction time, were reviewed in the context of driving behavior. Literature reported, indicated age related changes in these abilities have relevance for the understanding of the driving behavior of the older adult.

Differences in unconspicuous word identification as a function of age and reversible-figure training

Inconspicuous word identification was studied in 48 young (X age 19.3 years), middle-aged (X age 44.5 years) and old (X age 69.5 years) male and female subjects. Although this task appeared to be an easy one for the young subjects, it was strikingly difficult for the middle-aged and elderly subjects. Reversible-figure training apparently led to a small but significant overall improvement in inconspicuous word identification but did not at all diminish the age differences in such performance. The interactions of sex by reversible-figure training and age by first set-second set of words were also significant. Further research will be needed to fully examine the remediability of age-related perceptual skill deficits.