Effects of Reducing Frequency of Intrinsic Knowledge of Results on the Learning of a Motor Skill

Motor learning in golf-a systematic review

Golf is a sport that consists of complex movement skills that need to be executed with utmost precision. Consequently, motor skill learning plays a crucial role in golf, and large numbers of studies address various methods of motor learning. In the present review, we give a systematic overview of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on motor learning of golf-specific motor skills. Three electronic databases were searched for RCTs looking at the effect of at least one learning method on performance in a golf-specific motor task. We grouped the studies depending on the learning strategies "cognitive training", "practice scheduling", "augmented feedback", "implicit and explicit learning" and "focus of attention". Fifty-two RCTs met the eligibility criteria and were included in the systematic review. Superior methods within their respective strategies were an external focus of attention and increasing contextual interference, as well as errorless learning. For "cognitive training" and "augmented feedback", no single method can be considered the most favorable. The overall biggest limitations were the lack of statistical power for more than half of the RCTs, and the fact that most studies of the present review investigated simple putting tasks in novices only. Although we have shown superiority of specific learning methods, transferability of the recommendations that can be derived from simple golf tasks in novices to sport-specific tasks in advanced players still has to be demonstrated and require study designs with the intention to provide practical recommendations for coaches and athletes in the sport of golf.

Optimizing Motor Learning: Difficulty Manipulation Combined with Feedback- Frequency Enhance Under-Time-Pressure Fine-Motor-Coordination Skill Acquisition and Retention

Improving acquisition and retention of new motor skills is of great importance. This study investigated the effects of progressive task difficulty manipulation (TD), combined with varying knowledge of results frequencies (KR) on performance accuracy and consistency when learning novel fine motor coordination tasks, and examined relationships between novel fine motor task performance and executive function (EF), working memory (WM), and perceived difficulty (PD). Thirty-six, right-handed, novice physical-education students (age = 10.72 ± 0.89 years) participated; participants were separated into three groups, receiving varying KR frequency (100%KR, 50%KR, and 33%KR). For each group, distance to the target was increased progressively (2 m, 2.37 m, and 3.56 m) to obtain three difficulty levels. We assessed performance during test sessions (pretest, post-test, Retention1 and Retention2) under free (FC) and time pressure (TPC) conditions. Results revealed that under FC, 100%KR improved significantly. Results revealed significant linear improvements in accuracy for 50%KR and 33%KR under TPC. New findings indicate that the association between TD and KR (50%KR) may provide more appropriate cognitive loads compared to 33%KR and 100%KR groups. These have implications for practitioners because, while strategies are clearly necessary for improving learning, the efficacy of the process appears to be based on the characteristics of the learners.

Knowledge of Results do not Affect Self-Efficacy and Skill Acquisition on an Anticipatory Timing Task

The literature provides that self-efficacy increases if individuals receive more information of their success during practice with a consequent increase in learning outcomes. The objective of this study was to test the effects of different knowledge of results (KR) frequencies on self-efficacy and motor learning. Two groups with different KR frequencies performed an anticipatory timing task on two consecutive days. To measure self-efficacy, a questionnaire on participant's efficacy was applied at different times. Both groups increased self-efficacy during practice, but we found no evidence of the effect of performance on self-efficacy and no group and self-efficacy effect on retention. These findings demonstrate that different KR frequencies do not affect the self-efficacy and learning of an anticipatory timing task.

Feedback protocol of 'fading knowledge of results' is effective for prolonging motor learning retention

[Purpose] “Knowledge of results” (KR) is information about the success of an action relative to a goal. A reduced frequency of “knowledge of results” reportedly promotes motor learning more than a high frequency. However, the effect of gradually diminishing or increasing “knowledge of results” pattern has been rarely studied and is controversial. We investigated the effectiveness of diminishing “knowledge of results” pattern in motor learning. [Participants and Methods] Forty-six healthy adults were randomly assigned to either the 100% KR, 50% KR, or faded KR group. Participants were tasked with exerting 60% of their maximum voluntary contraction of their left shoulder flexion muscle in an isometric exercise. Participants practiced the task 20 times a day for 4 days. A pretest and posttest were conducted before and immediately after the acquisition, respectively. Retention tests were conducted 1 day, 1 week, and 2 weeks after the acquisition. [Results] The absolute error was significantly reduced in the posttest in the faded KR and 50% KR cohorts. However, there was no significant difference in the 100% KR group. In the faded KR subjects, the improvement effect was observed up to 1 week following acquisition. [Conclusion] Faded “knowledge of results” productively prolongs the effect of motor learning.

Comparing the Effects of Self-Controlled and Examiner-Controlled Feedback on Learning in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder

Background:

Feedback can improve task learning in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). However, the frequency and type of feedback may play different role in learning and needs to more investigations.

Objectives:

The aim of this study was to evaluate the acquisition and retention of new feedback skills in children with DCD under different frequency of self-control and control examiner feedback.

Materials and Methods:

In this quasi-experimental study with pretest-posttest design, participants based on their retention were divided into four feedback groups: self-controlled feedback groups with frequencies of 50% and75%, experimenter controls with frequencies of 50% and 75%. The study sample consisted of 24 boys with DCD aged between 9 to 11 years old in Ahvaz City, Iran. Then subjects practiced 30 throwing (6 blocks of 5 attempts) in eighth session. Acquisition test immediately after the last training session, and then the retention test were taken. Data were analyzed using the paired t-test, ANOVA and Tukey tests.

Results:

The results showed no significant difference between groups in the acquisition phase (P > 0.05). However,in the retention session, group of self-control showed better performance than the control tester group (P < 0.05).

Conclusions:

Based on the current findings, self-control feedback with high frequency leads to more learning in DCD children. The results of this study can be used in rehabilitation programs to improve performance and learning in children with DCD.

Effects of self-controlled feedback on learning of a throwing task in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of self-controlled feedback on learning a throwing task in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy (SHCP). In order to achieve the research objectives, using a semi-experimental method, 20 children with SHCP (7-12 years old) were selected from special schools in Tehran, Iran. After showing the participants how to do the throwing task, a pre-test with 10 trials was conducted to homogenize the participants. Then, they were randomly assigned to two groups (self-control group and yoked group) to be examined in acquisition, retention, and transfer phases. Children in self-control group requested feedback when necessary during the acquisition phase. In contrast, participants in yoked-group replicated the feedback schedules of their counterparts in self-control group without any choice. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed to analyze the data. Based on the results, a significant difference was not found between the self-control and yoked-group in acquisition phase (F=.538, p<.473). However, there was a significant difference between the two groups in retention (F=11.72, p<.003) and transfer (F=6.74, p<.018) phases. Thus, based on the better results obtained in the self-control condition, this type of feedback can be used in physiotherapy programs related to children with CP to improve their motor skills and independence movements.

Individual differences in the benefits of feedback for learning

OBJECTIVE

Research on learning from feedback has produced ambiguous guidelines for feedback design--some have advocated minimal feedback, whereas others have recommended more extensive feedback that highly supported performance. The objective of the current study was to investigate how individual differences in cognitive resources may predict feedback requirements and resolve previous conflicted findings.

METHOD

Cognitive resources were controlled for by comparing samples from populations with known differences, older and younger adults.To control for task demands, a simple rule-based learning task was created in which participants learned to identify fake Windows pop-ups. Pop-ups were divided into two categories--those that required fluid ability to identify and those that could be identified using crystallized intelligence.

RESULTS

In general, results showed participants given higher feedback learned more. However, when analyzed by type of task demand, younger adults performed comparably with both levels of feedback for both cues whereas older adults benefited from increased feedbackfor fluid ability cues but from decreased feedback for crystallized ability cues.

CONCLUSION

One explanation for the current findings is feedback requirements are connected to the cognitive abilities of the learner-those with higher abilities for the type of demands imposed by the task are likely to benefit from reduced feedback.

APPLICATION

We suggest the following considerations for feedback design: Incorporate learner characteristics and task demands when designing learning support via feedback.

Extrinsic feedback and management of low back pain: A critical review of the literature

Effective intervention for low back pain (LBP) can include feedback in one form or other. Although extrinsic feedback (EF) can be provided in a number of ways, most research has not considered how different EF characteristics (e.g. timing and content) influence treatment outcomes. A systematic search related to feedback and LBP was performed on relevant electronic databases. This narrative review aims to describe the forms of feedback provision in the literature regarding management of LBP, and to discuss these in light of previously recommended principles for the use of extrinsic feedback. The present review found support for the provision of EF that focuses on content characteristics including program feedback, summary results feedback, and external focus of attention. Temporal characteristics should enhance the use of intermittent or self-selected feedback. The literature does not support the provision of concurrent or constant EF. As much of the literature related to EF in the management of LBP has not considered content and timing characteristics we have identified future research directions that will clarify the use of content and timing characteristics of EF relative to the management of LBP.

Feedback Requirements for Older Adult Learning: Do Cognitive Abilities Matter?

A century's worth of research has failed to identify the amount of feedback necessary to learn a new task ( cf. (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992; Van Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005). Some argue less feedback is beneficial in acquisition as it provides conditions similar to those needed for retention (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992); others advocate more feedback will reduce the cognitive load of the learner thus freeing up the resources needed for learning (McLaughlin, 2007; McLaughlin, Rogers, & Fisk, 2006; Sweller, 1988). To test the model feedback requirements are determined by the cognitive resources of the learner and the demands imposed by the task (McLaughlin et al., 2006), a simple cue-based learning exercise was created. Cognitive resources was controlled for by using participants with documented declines in cognitive resources, older adults (Horn & Cattell, 1967; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991). Results indicated feedback requirements for a cue that drew from fluid abilities differed from a cue that drew from crystallized intelligence suggesting feedback requirements may be based on individual ability levels. Theoretical and applied contributions are also discussed.

Reduced Relative Frequency of Knowledge of Results without Visual Feedback in Learning a Golf-Putting Task

This study examined the effects of reduced relative frequency of knowledge of results (KR) on learning to putt in golf. Participants (19 men and 15 women) putted a golf ball, stopping the ball on a line at a distance of 3.5 m from the starting position, which included an uphill portion. After a pretest, participants were assigned as they arrived in balanced order by sex to one of two groups (100% KR, 33% KR) and practiced 60 trials. Those in the 100% KR group performed the task in its natural context, while others assigned to the 33% KR were shown the location of the putted ball after every third trial. All participants then performed a posttest and two retention tests, done 10 min. and 24 hr. after the posttest. Analysis at posttest showed each group had a constant error and an absolute constant error (|CE|) less than those at pretest. Also, in the retention test conducted the following day, the constant error of the 33% KR group was less than that of the 100% KR group. Third, in the posttest and both retention tests, the |CE| of the 100% KR group was larger than that of the 33% KR group. These results suggest that reduced relative frequency of knowledge of results is effective in learning the accuracy of the golf putt.