Alcohol, frustration, and aggression: an experiment using the balanced placebo design

The effects of alcohol and alcohol expectancies on subjective reports and physiological reactivity: a meta-analysis

The balanced placebo design (BPD) has been used to understand the etiology and maintenance of alcohol consumption. The utility of this design lies in its ability to examine both actual alcohol consumption and the expectation of alcohol consumption. A meta-analysis of the BPD literature was conducted in the context of cue-reactivity, which may be characterized as an experimental phenomenon observed in studies utilizing alcohol. Sixty-four studies were obtained in literature searches and coded for type of experimental setting and cues present during the actual beverage consumption. Lab setting was a moderator for both pharmacological (alcohol) and expectancy effects with the largest effects (in the same direction) noted in natural environment labs (i.e., an easy chair and casual environment). Contrary to predictions, the bar lab produced the smallest effects. Cues present during alcohol consumption served as a moderator of pharmacological effect, with the largest effect observed when alcohol was placed on the rim of the glass. Implications of these findings for cue-reactivity studies and the treatment of alcohol abuse are discussed.

The relation between alcohol and aggression: an integrated biopsychosocial conceptualization

The relation between acute alcohol consumption and aggressive behavior is a complex phenomenon that has been studied from a variety of different disciplines. This article reviews findings from both survey and experimental research. The influence of both situational and individual difference variables on the alcohol-aggression relation is discussed and the strengths and weaknesses of various methodological approaches are highlighted. Current theoretical perspectives of the alcohol-aggression relation are reviewed. An integrated heuristic framework of the alcohol-aggression relation also is outlined. This conceptualization involves both distal and proximal risk factors for problems with alcohol and violence, which include biological, psychological, interpersonal, and contextual influences. Research and treatment implications of this framework are also discussed. It is recommended that researchers attempt to measure variables from a variety of domains in order to obtain a better understanding of this complex phenomenon. Furthermore, it is emphasized that there is a clear need to further implement and assess primary and secondary prevention efforts and to design integrated and flexible approaches for individuals with alcohol and violence problems.

Public Drinking and Violence: Not Just an Alcohol Problem

Three hundred hours of unstructured observation by pairs of observers in twenty-three licensed premises in Sydney allowed the identification through qualitative analysis of situational factors and management practices that increase the risk of physical violence. Four high-risk and two low-risk premises were particularly contrasted, as were violent and non-violent occasions in the same venues. Violence was concentrated in' specific places at specific times. It was related to complex interactions between aspects of patron mix, levels of comfort, boredom, and intoxication, and the behaviour of bouncers. Violence is perpetuated by poor management, lax police surveillance, and inappropriate bureaucratic controls and legislation. The authors conclude that regularly violent venues should have their licenses cancelled, and police should enforce laws regulating bouncers. Promotions which cause mass intoxication should be banned, but responsible serving practices on their own may not greatly influence levels of violence.

Women's yielding to social group pressure as a function of alcohol and type of pressure

Thirty-six women participated in an experiment exploring whether alcohol intoxication facilitates yielding to social persuasive information. Subjects were randomly assigned to either an Alcohol, a Placebo, or a Control Group. The alcohol dose was 1.0 ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight. Subjects first estimated the length of a line and were then given faked feedback from either a male or a female peer reference group. This procedure was repeated 60 times. Analyses indicated that the Placebo group yielded more often than the Alcohol group irrespective of type of feedback. A measure of locus of control indicated no significant mean differences as a function of alcohol group but correlations between externality and yielding were strong for placebo subjects, that is, externally oriented placebo subjects yielded more than internally oriented placebo subjects. This was discussed in terms of feelings uneasiness caused by the discrepancy between feelings of intoxication and information about drink content.

Aggressive and nonaggressive behavior as a function of alcohol intoxication and frustration in women

An experiment tested whether alcohol increases aggression in women in a situation in which both an aggressive and a nonaggressive response alternative of equal instrumentality and of equal variability are available. Subjects were assigned to one of three groups, namely, an alcohol, a placebo, or a control group. The alcohol dose was 1.0 ml of pure alcohol/kg body weight. After drinking their respective drink, subjects were instructed to supervise a bogus partner on a visual scan test over a series of trials. Each time this partner made a mistake, subjects could either give an uncomfortable electric shock (scale 1 to 10) or a comfortable vibration (scale 1 to 10) to the partner. Aggressive and nonaggressive behavior was measured as numbers, intensities, and durations of shocks or vibrations, respectively. Neither alcohol nor frustration differentiated the groups on aggressive or nonaggressive behavior. All groups were significantly more inclined to use the nonaggressive alternative irrespective of alcohol dose and level of frustration. In conclusion it was stated that women do not increase their aggression as a function of alcohol in a situation with more than one response alternative available. The need to incorporate gender differences as to aggressive effects of alcohol was stressed.

Alcohol and outcome expectancies: tolerance for socially nonacceptable behaviors

A questionnaire was administered to 200 college men and women. The instrument contained two identical sets of 45 items, each one describing a socially nonacceptable behavior. Subjects indicated whether their tolerance for the described behaviors was altered if they knew that the person was moderately intoxicated and whether they expected changed tolerance from others for inappropriate social behaviors when they themselves acted under moderate influence of alcohol. The general result indicated both reduced expected and displayed tolerance for alcohol-related social transgressions. This was interpreted as nonsupportive of the "time-out" hypothesis, according to which alcohol intoxication functions as an "excuse" for socially unacceptable behaviors. A minority of the respondents, however, both showed and expected extreme tolerance under alcohol and for this minority the "time-out" hypothesis might be valid.

Alcohol-related expectancies for self and others reported by alcoholic men and women

A questionnaire used by Rohsenow in 1983 was administered to 87 alcoholic men and women taking part in rehabilitation programs at local Swedish outpatient rehabilitation clinics. The purpose was to explore their alcohol-related expectancies for themselves and for others and to compare these with the results from other similar studies in other cultures. The answers, scored according to Rohsenow's eight factors, indicated that alcoholics expected larger positive and negative effects for others than for themselves. This discrepancy was slightly modified by such variables as sex, age, and drinking habits. Alcoholics in Sweden seem to have alcohol-related expectancies similar to those of social drinkers both in Sweden and in other Western countries.

Male physical aggression as a function of alcohol intoxication and frustration: experimental results and methodological considerations

Forty-five undergraduate students were assigned to either an Alcohol, a Placebo, or a Control group. The alcohol dose was 0.80 g of 100% alcohol/kg body weight. Subjects were informed that they could win a sum of money depending on the performance of a partner. They then supervised the partner over a series of trials on a visual scan test and could influence the partner by either giving an uncomfortable electric shock (aggressive alternative) or a comfortable vibration (nonaggressive alternative) at each incorrect response from the partner. Both alternatives were said to be equally instrumental in reaching the goal of winning the money and both could be varied in intensity on a 10-point scale and without limits in terms of duration. Aggression was measured as number of aggressive responses chosen, and in terms of intensity and duration. Nonaggression was measured in terms of intensity and duration. Intoxicated subjects did not increase their aggression but all groups chose significantly more nonaggressive responses and did so with higher intensity and duration. Frustration did not significantly affect these types of responding. Results are discussed in terms of methodological considerations and the importance of using realistic experimental paradigms is stressed. Also, theoretical implications are discussed.

Male physical aggression as a function of alcohol, frustration, and subjective mood

An experiment tested the hypothesis that alcohol intoxication will increase aggression only if the subject is experiencing the intoxicated state as displeasing. Forty males drank either 0.8 mL of pure alcohol/kg body weight or a placebo drink and were then exposed to either a pleasant or an unpleasant mood manipulation. Following this, they were given the chance to aggress in a modified version of the Buss "aggression machine" paradigm. All subjects were observed under varying levels of frustration. Results indicated that alcohol-drinking subjects were more aggressive than placebo-drinking subjects, and that both intoxicated and sober subjects increased their aggression when frustrated. Intoxicated subjects in a pleasant mood were most aggressive under both provocative and nonprovocative conditions. The hypothesis was not supported and results are discussed in relation to different theoretical models and in relation to results from other similar studies.

Alcohol-related expectancies reported by college women to a large dose of alcohol

A sample of 50 college women taking part in a previous study about expected effects of moderate doses of alcohol were contacted a second time. Of the original 50 subjects 47 now reported their expectancies for a large dose of alcohol both for themselves and for others by simply stating the three most probable effects in terms of behavior and emotion. They primarily expected themselves to become happy and others generally to misbehave. When answers were coded as positive or negative, subjects expected positive or negative effects both for themselves and others on the first choice. On the second and third choices, the proportion of negative expectancies increased significantly, especially for others. Results from the previous and the present study were compared, and it was concluded that subjects seem to have very few but dominant expectancies.

Wine and Male Physical Aggression

Twenty male undergraduates were randomly assigned either to a wine-drinking group or a control group. The alcohol dose was 0.8 ml. of pure alcohol/kg. body weight. They were tested for physical aggression in a modified version of the Buss' “aggression machine.” All subjects were tested under frustrating and non-frustrating conditions. Alcohol did not increase aggression under any of these conditions although the paradigm produces increased aggression when vodka is used as an intoxicant. The results were discussed in terms of differential expectancies tied to different types of beverages.

The effect of alcohol intoxication on primary and secondary processes in male social drinkers

The acute effects of alcohol intoxication on cognitive style and on locus of control was investigated in an experimental setting. Sixty male subjects were randomly assigned to either an Alcohol, a Placebo, or a Control group. The alcohol dose was 1.0 ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight. Subjects filled out a modified version of Rotter's locus of control scale and reported their perceptions to Street's Gestalt Completion Test. The latter test was scored in a standardized way for stimulus closeness, indicating a reality oriented and rational functioning, and stimulus distance, indicating a more primitive, irrational and pleasure oriented functioning. Alcohol made subjects less internally controlled and decreased the reality oriented functioning while the pleasure oriented functioning was not affected. Results were discussed in terms of pharmacological mechanisms, disinhibition, and creativity.

The structure of psychological defense mechanisms in women as a function of alcohol intoxication

The present experiment tested whether moderate alcohol intoxication influences the relative strength of different psychoanalytic defense mechanisms and whether the overall level of defense activity is changed. Thirty-six women were randomly assigned to either an alcohol, a placebo, or a control group. The alcohol dose was 1.0 ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight. Subjects were tested with the Defense Mechanism Test (DMT), which gives a valid measure of both elaborate or late and primitive or early defense mechanisms. Results indicated no significant effects of alcohol intoxication on any aspect of the defense system. This was taken as supportive of the psychoanalytic notion in respect of the stability of the defense system. Possible complications were discussed.

Alcohol effects on cognitive and personality style in women with special reference to primary and secondary process

Changes in primary and secondary process functioning as well as in experienced locus of control as indicators of cognitive style were examined as a function of alcohol intoxication. Women subjects drank 1.0 ml of pure alcohol/kg body weight and were compared to a placebo and a control group. Results indicated a significant shift in locus of control toward greater externality and a significant shift in cognitive style from a dominance of secondary process when sober to a dominance of primary process when intoxicated. These shifts were discussed as indicative of the pharmacological properties of alcohol and were related to the disinhibition and the arousal hypotheses. Alternative explanations were also discussed.

Alcohol and the validation of experimental aggression paradigms: the Taylor reaction time procedure

The aim was to find out whether intoxicated and sober subjects would calibrate a shock scale to the same objective level and whether shocks received would be subjectively experienced in the same way in terms of pain and discomfort. The intention was also to replicate previous studies attributing an aggression enhancing effect to alcohol. The subjective ratings were made within the Taylor reaction time 'aggression machine'. Twenty-four subjects were randomly assigned to either an alcohol or a control group. The former drank 0.8 ml of pure alcohol/kg body wt. Results indicated no differences among groups on a shock setting measure of aggression under unprovoked or provoked conditions and no differences in level of calibration of shocks or in subjective ratings of pain and discomfort. These results were contrary to all predictions and are discussed as indirectly supportive of an hypothesis stating that this version of the 'aggression machine' may not generate a valid measure of aggression when used in alcohol research.

The influence of dose, beverage type, and sex of interactor on female bar patrons' verbal aggression

This field study is an investigation of the influence of dose, type of beverage, and the sex of the confederate on female verbal aggression. The results showed no consistent effects attributable to dose; drinking liquor resulted in less aggressive responses but only when subjects interacted with a female confederate. The results show that studies of alcohol and aggression that use only male subjects do not generalize to females in natural settings and suggest that nonpharmacological factors need more attention in this area.

Beer intoxication and physical aggression in males

Twenty subjects participated in an experiment testing the effects of a moderate dose of beer on physical aggression. Subjects were randomly assigned to a beer drinking group or a control group. Aggression was measured in terms of number of shocks given, shock intensity, and shock duration in a modified version of the Buss' aggression machine. There were no differences among groups and there was no interaction of beer by frustration on aggression. The results are explained in terms of expectancies held by subjects as to the effects of beer intoxication on behaviour.

Lack of correspondence between alcohol-related aggressive expectancies for self and others

80 college students were asked about the expected effects of a moderate dose of alcohol for themselves and others in terms of getting more aggressive/angry or calm/kind. Analysis indicated that some subjects expected no such effects, some the same effects for self and others, and some different effects for self and others. Those expecting different effects believed others would become mote aggressive while they themselves would become more calm. The consequences for the balanced placebo design were discussed.

Alcohol and the acceptance of social influence: a preliminary study

30 female students were randomly assigned to either an Alcohol, a Placebo, or a Control group. They estimated the length of a line, received feedback from a reference group, and reestimated the line. The belief of being intoxicated increased a score of yielding to social pressure, which was explained in terms of attribution.

Human physical aggression as a function of frustration: role of aggressive cues

An experiment was performed testing whether aggressive cues are necessary or only facilitative in increasing aggression to a frustration and whether their role is to “pull out” aggression directly or to add to the experience of displeasure. 20 subjects participated and a modified version of the Buss' “aggression machine” was used in which frustration was manipulated within subjects and aggressive cues between subjects. Frustration was of an arbitrary kind and aggression was defined to subjects to have instrumental value in overcoming the frustrative event Results indicated that (1) frustration alone is a weak antecedent of aggression, (2) at low frustration aggressive cues seem to be necessary for aggression to increase, and (3) aggressive cues apparently elicit aggression directly. Results were discussed in terms of Berkowitz' reformulation of the frustration-aggression hypothesis.