Short-Term Repeated-Sprint Training (Straight Sprint Vs. Changes of Direction) in Soccer Players

The Effects of Repeated-Sprint Training on Physical Fitness and Physiological Adaptation in Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Repeated-sprint training (RST) is a common training method for enhancing physical fitness in athletes. To advance RST prescription, it is important to understand the effects of programming variables on physical fitness and physiological adaptation.

OBJECTIVES

This study (1) quantifies the pooled effects of running RST on changes in 10 and 20 m sprint time, maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIR1) distance, repeated-sprint ability (RSA), countermovement jump (CMJ) height and change of direction (COD) ability in athletes, and (2) examines the moderating effects of program duration, training frequency, weekly volume, sprint modality, repetition distance, number of repetitions per set and number of sets per session on changes in these outcome measures.

METHODS

Pubmed, SPORTDiscus and Scopus databases were searched for original research articles up to 04 July 2023, investigating RST in healthy, able-bodied athletes, between 14 and 35 years of age, and a performance calibre of trained or above. RST interventions were limited to repeated, maximal running (land-based) sprints of ≤ 10 s duration, with ≤ 60 s recovery, performed for 2-12 weeks. A Downs and Black checklist was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. Eligible data were analysed using multi-level mixed-effects meta-analysis, with standardised mean changes determined for all outcomes. Standardised effects [Hedges G (G)] were evaluated based on coverage of their confidence (compatibility) intervals (CI) using a strength and conditioning specific reference value of G = 0.25 to declare an improvement (i.e. G > 0.25) or impairment (i.e. G < - 0.25) in outcome measures. Applying the same analysis, the effects of programming variables were then evaluated against a reference RST program, consisting of three sets of 6 × 30 m straight-line sprints performed twice per week for 6 weeks (1200 m weekly volume).

RESULTS

40 publications were included in our investigation, with data from 48 RST groups (541 athletes) and 19 active control groups (213 athletes). Across all studies, the effects of RST were compatible with improvements in VO2max (G 0.56, 90% CI 0.32-0.80), YYIR1 distance (G 0.61, 90% CI 0.43-0.79), RSA decrement (G - 0.61, 90% CI - 0.85 to - 0.37), linear sprint times (10 m: G - 0.35, 90% CI - 0.48 to - 0.22; 20 m: G - 0.48, 90% CI - 0.69 to - 0.27), RSA average time (G - 0.34, 90% CI - 0.49 to - 0.18), CMJ height (G 0.26, 90% CI 0.13-0.39) and COD ability (G - 0.32, 90% CI - 0.52 to - 0.12). Compared with the reference RST program, the effects of manipulating training frequency (+ 1 session per week), program duration (+ 1 extra training week), RST volume (+ 200 m per week), number of reps (+ 2 per set), number of sets per session (+ 1 set) or rep distance (+ 10 m per rep) were either non-substantial or comparable with an impairment in at least one outcome measure per programming variable.

CONCLUSIONS

Running-based RST improves speed, intermittent running performance, VO2max, RSA, COD ability and CMJ height in trained athletes. Performing three sets of 6 × 30 m sprints, twice per week for 6 weeks is effective for enhancing physical fitness and physiological adaptation. Additionally, since our findings do not provide conclusive support for the manipulation of RST variables, further work is needed to better understand how programming factors can be manipulated to augment training-induced adaptations.

STUDY REGISTRATION

Open Science Framework registration https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RVNDW .

Rationale and Practical Recommendations for Testing Protocols in Female Soccer: A Narrative Review

ABSTRACT

Beato, M, Datson, N, Anderson, L, Brownlee, T, Coates, A, and Hulton, A. Rationale and practical recommendations for testing protocols in female soccer: A narrative review. J Strength Cond Res 37(9): 1912-1922, 2023-The aim of this narrative review is to evaluate the presented literature on tests (aerobic, speed, changes of direction [COD], strength, power, jump, and anthropometry) of the varied components of female soccer and to draw attention to the most suitable protocols to allow practitioners to accurately track players' fitness status. The 2 most common field tests used to assess aerobic fitness are the Yo-Yo intermittent test (level 1 and level 2) and the 30-15 intermittent fitness test because of an ability to measure multiple players at once with a soccer-specific intermittent profile. The sprinting performance can be assessed on distances of <30 m; however, longer distances (e.g., 40 m) allow for achieving peak speed (flying sprint test), which can be assessed using global navigation satellite system. Changes-of-direction capacity has been found to be an important component of players testing and training programs, although there is no "gold standard" to assess COD or repeated sprint ability performance in female players. Lower-limb power can be assessed using jump tests that can use force platforms, jump mats, and optoelectronic devices, while maintaining a good reliability. Several in-direct tests are currently available for assessing anthropometry parameters, such as skinfold thickness, hydrodensitometry, and ultrasound. However, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry is the most valid and reliable method for assessing body composition in team sport athletes, with the addition of bone health that is a key measure in female athletes. In conclusion, the evidence reported in this review will be able to aid practitioners, coaches, and researchers to decide which tests meet the requirements of their environment.

Linear and Change of Direction Repeated Sprint Ability Tests: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Kyles, A, Oliver, JL, Cahill, MJ, Lloyd, RS, and Pedley, J. Linear and change of direction repeated sprint ability tests: a systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 37(8): 1703-1717, 2023-The ability to repeatedly sprint is important in many sports, but there is no established protocol for measuring repeated sprint ability (RSA). The purpose of this review was to identify overground RSA protocols previously reported in the literature and to recommend standardized protocols. A systematic review of the literature was used to identify studies that have used an RSA test, with data describing protocol design extracted. One hundred eight studies were included in the review, across which 47 unique protocols were identified. Eighteen protocols included at least one change of direction (COD), and this increased mean sprint time compared with linear RSA tests (7.26 ± 1.84 vs. 4.48 ± 1.02 seconds). There was considerable variability across protocols regarding sprint distance (20-40 m), sprint repetitions (3-15), recovery duration (10-60 seconds), recovery type (active vs. passive), and work-to-rest ratio (≤1:1.4-19.2). Separate protocols are needed for linear and COD tests, and these should reflect the brief nature of intense periods of competition and stress the ability to recover. Based on data across studies for protocol design and to ensure a demanding work-to-rest ratio, it is suggested that a linear RSA should comprise 6 × 30 m sprints separated by 15 seconds of active recovery. To provide some parity to linear tests, to keep work duration brief and to maintain a demanding work-to-rest ratio, a COD RSA should comprise 6 × 30 m shuttle sprints (15 + 15 m), providing one change of direction (180° COD), and maintaining a 15-second active recovery.

The Acute Demands of Repeated-Sprint Training on Physiological, Neuromuscular, Perceptual and Performance Outcomes in Team Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Repeated-sprint training (RST) involves maximal-effort, short-duration sprints (≤ 10 s) interspersed with brief recovery periods (≤ 60 s). Knowledge about the acute demands of RST and the influence of programming variables has implications for training prescription.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the physiological, neuromuscular, perceptual and performance demands of RST, while also examining the moderating effects of programming variables (sprint modality, number of repetitions per set, sprint repetition distance, inter-repetition rest modality and inter-repetition rest duration) on these outcomes.

METHODS

The databases Pubmed, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE and Scopus were searched for original research articles investigating overground running RST in team sport athletes ≥ 16 years. Eligible data were analysed using multi-level mixed effects meta-analysis, with meta-regression performed on outcomes with ~ 50 samples (10 per moderator) to examine the influence of programming factors. Effects were evaluated based on coverage of their confidence (compatibility) limits (CL) against elected thresholds of practical importance.

RESULTS

From 908 data samples nested within 176 studies eligible for meta-analysis, the pooled effects (± 90% CL) of RST were as follows: average heart rate (HRavg) of 163 ± 9 bpm, peak heart rate (HRpeak) of 182 ± 3 bpm, average oxygen consumption of 42.4 ± 10.1 mL·kg-1·min-1, end-set blood lactate concentration (B[La]) of 10.7 ± 0.6 mmol·L-1, deciMax session ratings of perceived exertion (sRPE) of 6.5 ± 0.5 au, average sprint time (Savg) of 5.57 ± 0.26 s, best sprint time (Sbest) of 5.52 ± 0.27 s and percentage sprint decrement (Sdec) of 5.0 ± 0.3%. When compared with a reference protocol of 6 × 30 m straight-line sprints with 20 s passive inter-repetition rest, shuttle-based sprints were associated with a substantial increase in repetition time (Savg: 1.42 ± 0.11 s, Sbest: 1.55 ± 0.13 s), whereas the effect on sRPE was trivial (0.6 ± 0.9 au). Performing two more repetitions per set had a trivial effect on HRpeak (0.8 ± 1.0 bpm), B[La] (0.3 ± 0.2 mmol·L-1), sRPE (0.2 ± 0.2 au), Savg (0.01 ± 0.03) and Sdec (0.4; ± 0.2%). Sprinting 10 m further per repetition was associated with a substantial increase in B[La] (2.7; ± 0.7 mmol·L-1) and Sdec (1.7 ± 0.4%), whereas the effect on sRPE was trivial (0.7 ± 0.6). Resting for 10 s longer between repetitions was associated with a substantial reduction in B[La] (-1.1 ± 0.5 mmol·L-1), Savg (-0.09 ± 0.06 s) and Sdec (-1.4 ± 0.4%), while the effects on HRpeak (-0.7 ± 1.8 bpm) and sRPE (-0.5 ± 0.5 au) were trivial. All other moderating effects were compatible with both trivial and substantial effects [i.e. equal coverage of the confidence interval (CI) across a trivial and a substantial region in only one direction], or inconclusive (i.e. the CI spanned across substantial and trivial regions in both positive and negative directions).

CONCLUSIONS

The physiological, neuromuscular, perceptual and performance demands of RST are substantial, with some of these outcomes moderated by the manipulation of programming variables. To amplify physiological demands and performance decrement, longer sprint distances (> 30 m) and shorter, inter-repetition rest (≤ 20 s) are recommended. Alternatively, to mitigate fatigue and enhance acute sprint performance, shorter sprint distances (e.g. 15-25 m) with longer, passive inter-repetition rest (≥ 30 s) are recommended.

The effect of two sessions of combined jump and sprint training per week on fitness parameters in soccer players. A randomized controlled trial

This study aimed to investigate the effect of a combined jump and sprint training program, two sessions a week for 6 weeks, on sprinting, change of directions (COD) and jumping performance in semi-professional soccer players. Twenty soccer players were enrolled in this randomized controlled trial (age 20 ± 2 years, body mass 74.3 ± 5.9 kg). Players were randomized into two groups such as training group (TG, n = 10 players) or control group (CG, n = 10 players). Physical tests were performed before and after 6 weeks of training such as sprint 10 m, sprint 30 m, 505-COD test and standing long jump (LJ). The two groups performed the same training except for the combined jump and sprint training performed twice a week by TG. After 6 weeks of training, between-group analysis reported statistical difference in favor of the TG in sprint 10 m (p = 0.015, η2 = 0.295, large), sprint 30 m (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.599, large), in 505-COD (p = 0.026, η2 = 0.154, large), and LJ (p = 0.025, η2 = 0.027, small). These data indicate that combined sprint and jump training, when performed twice a week, for the duration of 6 weeks, in addition to the regular team training, can improve specific physical performance in male soccer players. This study has shown that a volume increment of 10% after 3 weeks of training can be a suitable training dose progression and that a combination of 64-70 jumps and 675-738 m of sprinting training per session can yield benefits in sprint, COD and jump performance.

When and How Do Soccer Players From a Semi-Professional Club Sprint in Match Play?

The aims of this study were to investigate the periods in which sprints occurred during official matches and analyze these sprints considering the effect of the playing position and different contextual variables. Electronic performance and tracking systems were used for the analysis of all sprints performed by players. Matches were recorded by video and synchronized with performance tracking data. A total of 252 sprints were analyzed. The greatest frequency of sprints was observed in the period 1 (0’–15’), followed by period 2 (15’–30’) and period 6 (75’–90’), regardless of the playing position (χ2 = 31.35; p = 0.051). Most sprints were non-linear (non-linear sprints: 97.6%; linear sprints: 2.4%) and without ball possession (without ball possession: 95.2%; with ball possession: 4.8%) for all playing positions, but the role of the sprint and the field area in which the sprint occurred were dependent on the position (p < 0.001). Specifically, players covered ~17.55 m per sprint, starting at ~10.34 km/h, reaching ~26.74 km/h, maximally accelerating at ~2.73 m/s2, and decelerating at ~3.61 m/s2. Overall, the playing position and contextual variables had no significant effect on physical performance variables analyzed during these sprints. Therefore, this study allows performance practitioners to have a better understanding of when and how soccer players sprint in match-play. In this regard, this study presents some training and testing strategies that may be considered to improve performance and decrease injury risk.

The effects of repeated sprint training with versus without change of direction on measures of physical fitness in youth male soccer players

BACKGROUND

Fitness characteristics such as linear sprinting, repeated sprint ability, and change of direction (CoD) are important for male youth soccer players to maximize training safety and physical performance. We aimed to compare the effects of a 9-week repeated sprint training (RST) program, with and without CoD movements, on repeated sprint ability (RSA total time [RSA<inf>total</inf>], RSA best time [RSA<inf>best</inf>]), CoD speed (505 CoD test), linear sprint speed (10-m and 20-m linear sprint), and aerobic endurance (AE; Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test level 1) in male youth soccer players.

METHODS

During the in-season period, 20 soccer players were randomly assigned to a RST with CoD (RST<inf>CoD</inf>) group (N.=10, age 15.4±0.4 years) or a repeated linear sprint training group (N.=10, age 15.6±0.3 years). Both training groups completed approximately two 15 minutes RST sessions per week, with the only difference between training programs being the inclusion of one CoD movement during sprint repetitions for the RST<inf>CoD</inf> group.

RESULTS

The two-way ANOVA with repeated measures revealed a significant, moderate effect of time for RSA<inf>best</inf> and RSA<inf>total</inf> (effect size [d] 0.69 and 0.67, respectively). Likewise, significant, moderate-to-large effects of time were found for CoD (d=0.83), 10-m and 20-m sprint (d=0.68 and d=0.67, respectively), and AE (d=0.66). No significant group × time interactions were observed for any measure of physical fitness (d=0.00 to d=0.16).

CONCLUSIONS

RST with and without CoD movements is equally effective in improving RSA total and best time, CoD speed, linear sprint speed, and AE in youth male soccer players.

The Effect of Differential Repeated Sprint Training on Physical Performance in Female Basketball Players: A Pilot Study

This pilot study aimed to determine the effects of differential learning in sprint running with and without changes of direction (COD) on physical performance parameters in female basketball players and to determine the feasibility of the training protocol. Nine female basketball players completed 4 weeks of repeated sprint training (RST) with (COD, n = 4) or without (NCOD, n = 5) changes of direction. A battery of sprints (0–10 and 0–25 m), vertical jumps (counter movement jump (CMJ), drop jump, and single-leg CMJs), and COD tests were conducted before and after intervention. NCOD completed two sets of ten sprints of 20 m, whereas COD performed 20 m sprints with a 180 degree turn at 10 m, returning to the starting line. Before each sprint, participants were instructed to provide different fluctuations (i.e., differential learning) in terms of varying the sprint. Both groups had 30 s of passive recovery between two sprints and 3 min between sets. A significant effect of time for the 0–10 m sprint, CMJ, and single leg-CMJ asymmetries were observed. Adding “erroneous” fluctuation during RST seems to be a suitable and feasible strategy for coaches to enhance physical performance in young female basketball players. However, further studies including larger samples and controlled designs are recommended to strengthen present findings.

Applicability of Field Aerobic Fitness Tests in Soccer: Which One to Choose?

A desire to make fitness testing cheaper and easier to conduct in a team-sport setting has led to the development of numerous field aerobic fitness tests. This has contributed to a growing confusion among strength and conditioning coaches about which one to use. The main aim of this narrative review was to examine the reliability, validity, sensitivity and usefulness of the commonly used field aerobic fitness tests and to provide practical guidelines for their use in soccer. The University of Montreal track test (UMTT) and Vam Eval test seem the best options for estimation of maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) while the highest signal-to-noise ratio of the 30-15 intermittent fitness test (30-15IFT) suggests its superior sensitivity to track changes in fitness. The UMTT and 30-15IFT are the best solutions for prescription of long and short high-intensity interval training sessions, respectively. All field tests mostly present with marginal usefulness, but the smallest worthwhile change for UMTT or Vam Eval test, Yo-YoIRT2 and 30-15IFT are smaller than their stage increment making the improvement of only one stage in the test performance already worthwhile. Strength and conditioning coaches are advised to choose the test based on their specific purpose of testing.

Effect of Online Training during the COVID-19 Quarantine on the Aerobic Capacity of Youth Soccer Players

Motor abilities, such as endurance and the optimal level of physical activity, play a fundamental role in football as they are necessary to maintain the high effectiveness of the training process. The aim of this study was the observation of the trend of changes in the level of cardiorespiratory endurance of young football players in a one-year cycle overlapping with the COVID-19 lockdown and an assessment of the impact of the training intervention during home confinement. The participants of the study were 24 young football players. We analysed the results of the study in a one-year training cycle (lockdown from 11 March 2020 to 6 May 2020). The cardiorespiratory endurance was measured using the Multistage 20 m Shuttle Run test—Beep Test. A repeated measures analysis of variance was used in the study. Detailed comparisons were made using Tukey’s HSD test. Statistically significant differences were noted in endurance in a one year cycle: F(5.115) = 22.65; p < 0.001; partial Eta-squared = 0.50. An increase in the level of endurance by mean = 179.17 m, SD ± 189.87 m was noted between T1 and T6. After the break caused by the COVID-19 restrictions, a decrease in the level of cardiorespiratory endurance was noted. Only after two training mesocycles was a significant increase in the mean value noted compared to the period before the pandemic (p < 0.05). With the negative impact of restrictions in mind, coaches and physiotherapists should exercise caution when planning training, taking into consideration the level of physical activity during the pandemic.

Effects of Small-Sided Games vs. Running-Based High-Intensity Interval Training on Physical Performance in Soccer Players: A Meta-Analytical Comparison

Objectives: This systematic review with meta-analysis (SRMA) was conducted to compare the effects of SSG-based interventions vs. running-based HIIT interventions on soccer players' sprinting time (ST), vertical height jump (VJH), and change of direction time (CODt). Data Sources: The data sources utilized were Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and PubMed. Results: An electronic search yielded 650 articles, six of which were included in the present study. Between-group analysis found a significant favoring effect of HIIT-based over SSG-based training interventions for the improvement of linear sprinting time (ES = 0.42; p = 0.012). A within-group analysis revealed a significant favoring effect of HIIT-based training interventions for improving linear sprinting time (ES = 0.42; p = 0.008) and CODt (ES = 1.04; p = 0.005) despite a non-significant effect on VJH (ES = 0.47; p = 0.22). Conclusions: The meta-analytical comparison revealed favoring the effect of running-based HIIT over SSG-based interventions in sprinting performance, although no significant differences were observed for jumping and CODt performance. The findings suggest that SSG-based programs should be supplemented by other training methods that benefit determinant capacities in soccer players.

Effects of high-intensity interval training in men soccer player's physical fitness: A systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized-controlled and non-controlled trials

This systematic review with meta-analysis (SRMA) was conducted to assess the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) programmes on men soccer players' aerobic fitness (maximal oxygen uptake and aerobic performance), repeated sprint ability (RSA), vertical jump height (VJH), and linear sprinting time (ST). An electronic search yielded 1,714 articles, 33 of which were included in the present study. Meta-analyses revealed significant benefits of HIIT compared to controls in maximal oxygen uptake (p = 0.018), AP (p = 0.041), and RSA (p = 0.049). No significant effects were found in terms of ST (p = 0.080). The meta-analyses of non-controlled studies revealed significant improvements after HIIT in maximal oxygen uptake (p = 0.001), AP (p = 0.007), RSA (p = 0.001), and ST (p < 0.001). However, no significant improvements in VHJ were found (p = 0.063). Furthermore, no significant differences were found in sub-group analysis (comparisons between HIIT types). In conclusion, HIIT is effective for improving maximal oxygen uptake, AP, and RSA regardless of the HIIT type. For VHJ and ST outcomes, it seems reasonable to complement the HIIT since it might not be enough to achieve significant changes.

COVID-19-Related Restrictions and Quarantine COVID-19: Effects on Cardiovascular and Yo-Yo Test Performance in Professional Soccer Players

The present study aimed to verify the quarantine's effects during a serious viral outbreak on the cardiovascular and performance associated with the Yo-Yo test in a sample of professional soccer players. 20 high-level soccer players (n = 20; age: 26 ± 4 years-old; weight: 76.85 ± 6.7 kg; height: 179 ± 6 cm) participated in this study. The intermittent Yo-Yo test was performed pre- and post- COVID-19 quarantine in a random order. During each test, the soccer players' running performance outcomes were monitored using a portable 5-Hz GPS with a 100 Hz accelerometer and a paired t-test was conducted at a p-value of ≤ 0.05. The main results demonstrated significant differences between pre- versus post-COVID-19 quarantine in the following variables: relative distance (161.7 ± 5.9 > 141.1 ± 33.8 m/min), maximal speed (18.7 ± 0.9 > 18.2 ± 0.6 km/h), acceleration (60 ± 20 frequency > 52 ± 16 frequency), deceleration (34 ± 13 frequency > 27 ± 6 frequency), sprints > 19 km/h [0.8 (0.2;3)% >0.5 (0;0.5)%], and in high intensity running distance [16.48 (2.68;41.64)m > 0.827 (0.164;3.0)m]. We concluded that COVID-19-related restrictions and quarantine COVID-19 demonstrated adverse effects on professional soccer players' Yo-Yo tests performance.