Rapid diagnostic methods for SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) detection: an evidence-based report

Smart and emerging point of care electrochemical sensors based on nanomaterials for SARS-CoV-2 virus detection: Towards designing a future rapid diagnostic tool

In the recent years, researchers from all over the world have become interested in the fabrication of advanced and innovative electrochemical and/or biosensors for respiratory virus detection with the use of nanotechnology. These fabricated sensors demonstrated a number of benefits, including precision, affordability, accessibility, and miniaturization which makes them a promising test method for point-of-care (PoC) screening for SARS-CoV-2 viral infection. In order to comprehend the principles of electrochemical sensing and the role of various types of sensing interfaces, we comprehensively explored the underlying principles of electroanalytical methods and terminologies related to it in this review. In addition, it is addressed how to fabricate electrochemical sensing devices incorporating nanomaterials as graphene, metal/metal oxides, metal organic frameworks (MOFs), MXenes, quantum dots, and polymers. We took an effort to carefully compile current developments, advantages, drawbacks, possible solutions in nanomaterials based electrochemical sensors.

Global Emergence of SARS-CoV2 Infection and Scientific Interventions to Contain its Spread

The global pandemic caused by COVID-19 posed a significant challenge to public health, necessitating rapid scientific interventions to tackle the spread of infection. The review discusses the key areas of research on COVID-19 including viral genomics, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics, and therapeutics. The genome sequencing of the virus facilitated the tracking of its evolution, transmission dynamics, and identification of variants. Epidemiological studies have provided insights into disease spread, risk factors, and the impact of public health infrastructure and social distancing measures. Investigations of the viral pathogenesis have elucidated the mechanisms underlying immune responses and severe manifestations including the long-term effects of COVID-19. Overall, the article provides an updated overview of the diagnostic methods developed for SARS-CoV-2 and discusses their strengths, limitations, and appropriate utilization in different clinical and public health settings. Furthermore, therapeutic approaches including antiviral drugs, immunomodulatory therapies, and repurposed medications have been investigated to alleviate disease severity and improve patient outcomes. Through a comprehensive analysis of these scientific efforts, the review provides an overview of the advancements made in understanding and tackling SARS-CoV-2, while underscoring the need for continued research to address the evolving challenges posed by this global health crisis.

Emerging perspectives on RNA virus-mediated infections: from pathogenesis to therapeutic interventions

RNA viruses continue to pose significant threats to global public health, necessitating a profound understanding of their pathogenic mechanisms and the development of effective therapeutic interventions. This manuscript provides a comprehensive overview of emerging perspectives on RNA virus-mediated infections, spanning from the intricate intricacies of viral pathogenesis to the forefront of innovative therapeutic strategies. A critical exploration of antiviral drugs sets the stage, highlighting the diverse classes of compounds that target various stages of the viral life cycle, underscoring the ongoing efforts to combat viral infections. Central to this discussion is the exploration of RNA-based therapeutics, with a spotlight on messenger RNA (mRNA)-based approaches that have revolutionized the landscape of antiviral interventions. Furthermore, the manuscript delves into the intricate world of delivery systems, exploring inno-vative technologies designed to enhance the efficiency and safety of mRNA vaccines. By analyzing the challenges and advancements in delivery mechanisms, this review offers a roadmap for future research and development in this critical area. Beyond conventional infectious diseases, the document explores the expanding applications of mRNA vaccines, including their promising roles in cancer immunotherapy and personalized medicine approaches. This manuscript serves as a valuable resource for researchers, clinicians, and policymakers alike, offering a nuanced perspective on RNA virus pathogenesis and the cutting-edge therapeutic interventions. By synthesizing the latest advancements and challenges, this review contributes significantly to the ongoing discourse in the field, driving the development of novel strategies to combat RNA virus-mediated infections effectively.

Reviewing methods of deep learning for diagnosing COVID-19, its variants and synergistic medicine combinations

The COVID-19 pandemic has necessitated the development of reliable diagnostic methods for accurately detecting the novel coronavirus and its variants. Deep learning (DL) techniques have shown promising potential as screening tools for COVID-19 detection. In this study, we explore the realistic development of DL-driven COVID-19 detection methods and focus on the fully automatic framework using available resources, which can effectively investigate various coronavirus variants through modalities. We conducted an exploration and comparison of several diagnostic techniques that are widely used and globally validated for the detection of COVID-19. Furthermore, we explore review-based studies that provide detailed information on synergistic medicine combinations for the treatment of COVID-19. We recommend DL methods that effectively reduce time, cost, and complexity, providing valuable guidance for utilizing available synergistic combinations in clinical and research settings. This study also highlights the implication of innovative diagnostic technical and instrumental strategies, exploring public datasets, and investigating synergistic medicines using optimised DL rules. By summarizing these findings, we aim to assist future researchers in their endeavours by providing a comprehensive overview of the implication of DL techniques in COVID-19 detection and treatment. Integrating DL methods with various diagnostic approaches holds great promise in improving the accuracy and efficiency of COVID-19 diagnostics, thus contributing to effective control and management of the ongoing pandemic.

Molecularly imprinted polymer-based optical immunosensors

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are artificial antibodies for a target molecule. The review focuses mainly on mechanistic steps involved in forming MIPs and the role of co-monomers and porogen. In addition, the electronic transition between different energy levels is explained with the help of the Jablonski diagram. Diverse receptor and target molecules for anchoring artificial MIPs are discussed, accentuating the synergetic effects obtained. The binding efficiency, selectivity, and sensitivity of various optical sensors are discussed intensively. In addition to this, we focused on synthesis, physical forms, characterization techniques, and microorganism detection of imprinted polymers. A brief investigation on the use of MIPs in cancer diagnosis is also included, and attention is extended to the important challenges faced in using imprinted polymers.

Gold conjugated nanobodies in a signal-enhanced lateral flow test strip for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 S1 antigen in saliva samples

Despite the transfer of COVID-19 from the pandemic to control, we are still in a state of uncertainty about long-term success. Therefore, there is a great need for rapid and sensitive diagnostics to sustain the control status. After several optimization trials, we developed lateral flow test (LFT) strips for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 spike 1 (S1) antigen in saliva samples. For signal enhancement of our developed strips, we applied dual gold conjugates. Gold-labeled anti-S1 nanobodies (Nbs) were employed as S1 detector conjugate, while gold-labeled angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) was used as S1 capturing conjugate. In a parallel strip design, we used an anti-S1 monoclonal antibody (mAb) as an antigen detector instead of anti-S1 Nbs. Saliva samples were collected from 320 symptomatic subjects (180 RT-PCR confirmed positive cases and 140 confirmed negative cases) and were tested with the developed strips. In early detection for positive samples with cycle threshold (Ct ≤ 30), Nbs-based LFT strips showed higher sensitivity (97.14%) and specificity (98.57%) than mAb-based strips which gave 90.04% sensitivity and 97.86% specificity. Moreover, the limit of detection (LoD) for virus particles was lower for Nbs-based LFT (0.4 × 104 copies/ml) than for the mAb-based test (1.6 × 104 copies/ml). Our results are in favor of the use of dual gold Nbs and ACE2 conjugates in LFT strips. These signal-enhanced strips offer a sensitive diagnostic tool for rapid screening of SARS-CoV-2 S1 antigen in the easily collected saliva samples.

Nanomaterials-based sensors for the detection of COVID-19: A review

With the threat of increasing SARS-CoV-2 cases looming in front of us and no effective and safest vaccine available to curb this pandemic disease due to its sprouting variants, many countries have undergone a lockdown 2.0 or planning a lockdown 3.0. This has upstretched an unprecedented demand to develop rapid, sensitive, and highly selective diagnostic devices that can quickly detect coronavirus (COVID-19). Traditional techniques like polymerase chain reaction have proven to be time-inefficient, expensive, labor intensive, and impracticable in remote settings. This shifts the attention to alternative biosensing devices that can be successfully used to sense the COVID-19 infection and curb the spread of coronavirus cases. Among these, nanomaterial-based biosensors hold immense potential for rapid coronavirus detection because of their noninvasive and susceptible, as well as selective properties that have the potential to give real-time results at an economical cost. These diagnostic devices can be used for mass COVID-19 detection to understand the rapid progression of the infection and give better-suited therapies. This review provides an overview of existing and potential nanomaterial-based biosensors that can be used for rapid SARS-CoV-2 diagnostics. Novel biosensors employing different detection mechanisms are also highlighted in different sections of this review. Practical tools and techniques required to develop such biosensors to make them reliable and portable have also been discussed in the article. Finally, the review is concluded by presenting the current challenges and future perspectives of nanomaterial-based biosensors in SARS-CoV-2 diagnostics.