Control of Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) blood feeding on sheep with long-lasting repellent pesticides

Complex chemical cocktail, containing insecticides diazinon and permethrin, drives acute toxicity to crustaceans in mountain lakes

Mountain lakes have long been perceived as pristine environments. However, atmospheric deposition of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been shown to expose these sensitive ecosystems to chemical pollution. Little is known on how this pollution impacts aquatic ecosystems at high altitudes. We combined passive sampling with liquid and gas chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry (LC- and GC-HRMS) to screen the water of eight lakes in three different regions of the French Pyrenees. In total, we screened for 479 organic chemicals including POPs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), legacy and current-use pesticides, biocides, and musk fragrances. We detected a complex cocktail of 151 individual chemicals and used their toxic unit summation (ΣTU) to assess toxicity for crustaceans and algae. While risks for algae never reached chronic risks, this was always the case for crustaceans. Acute toxic risk thresholds for crustaceans were even exceeded in several of our sites. At sites with acute toxic risk levels (> 0.1 ΣTU) crustaceans were completely absent or showed a low abundance. We conclude that crustaceans were at least partly impacted by the high toxic risks driven by the insecticides diazinon and permethrin. These drugs are widely used to protect livestock from blue tongue disease transmitted by sucking insects, suggesting free roaming livestock as local source. Our results provide important evidence on toxic chemical pollution in relatively remote mountain areas, with important consequences for aquatic mountain ecosystems.

Repellent Effects of Insecticides Against Protaphorura fimata (Collembola: Poduromorpha: Onychiuridae)

Protaphorura fimata Gisin (Poduromorpha: Onychiuridae) is a serious pest of lettuce [Lactuca sativa L. (Asteraceae)] in the Salinas Valley of California. Because P. fimata is a subterranean springtail species adapted to soil environments, individuals are assumed to be able to sense and behaviorally avoid insecticide-treated soil, and this capacity could be used strategically to control P. fimata. A series of laboratory bioassays was conducted to examine the behavior of P. fimata with respect to insecticides via noncontact and contact assays. In the noncontact assay, significantly more P. fimata individuals were collected away from the insecticide source than closer to the source (P < 0.05) when clothianidin, flonicamid, bifenthrin, diamethoate, essential oils, extracts of C. subtsugae, methomyl, chlorpyrifos, zeta-cypermethrin, thiamethoxam, pyrethrins, extracts of Burkholderia spp., cyantraniliprole, and oxamyl were used as insecticides. In the contact assay, P. fimata individuals spent significantly less time on discs treated with spinetoram and lambda-cyhalothrin during each crossing than on flonicamid- and oxamyl-treated discs. P. fimata individuals changed direction more frequently while crossing discs when the discs were treated with azadirachtin, clothianidin, bifenthrin, thiamethoxam + chlorantraniliprole, chlorpyrifos, cyantraniliprole, and lambda-cyhalothrin than when they were treated with water. In another contact assay, the number of seedlings injured by P. fimata feeding was significantly lower when germinating seeds were enclosed in a barrier treated with clothianidin, chlopyrifos, pyrethrins, and cyantraniliprole than when they were enclosed in a spinosad-treated barrier. The implications of these data for P. fimata management in the Salinas Valley are discussed.

Bluetongue: control, surveillance and safe movement of animals

The performance of different bluetongue control measures related to both vaccination and protection from bluetongue virus (BTV) vectors was assessed. By means of a mathematical model, it was concluded that when vaccination is applied on 95% of animals even for 3 years, bluetongue cannot be eradicated and is able to re‐emerge. Only after 5 years of vaccination, the infection may be close to the eradication levels. In the absence of vaccination, the disease can persist for several years, reaching an endemic condition with low level of prevalence of infection. Among the mechanisms for bluetongue persistence, the persistence in the wildlife, the transplacental transmission in the host, the duration of viraemia and the possible vertical transmission in vectors were assessed. The criteria of the current surveillance scheme in place in the EU for demonstration of the virus absence need revision, because it was highlighted that under the current surveillance policy bluetongue circulation might occur undetected. For the safe movement of animals, newborn ruminants from vaccinated mothers with neutralising antibodies can be considered protected against infection, although a protective titre threshold cannot be identified. The presence of colostral antibodies interferes with the vaccine immunisation in the newborn for more than 3 months after birth, whereas the minimum time after vaccination of animal to be considered immune can be up to 48 days. The knowledge about vectors ecology, mechanisms of over‐wintering and criteria for the seasonally vector‐free period was updated. Some Culicoides species are active throughout the year and an absolute vector‐free period may not exist at least in some areas in Europe. To date, there is no evidence that the use of insecticides and repellents reduce the transmission of BTV in the field, although this may reduce host/vector contact. By only using pour‐on insecticides, protection of animals is lower than the one provided by vector‐proof establishments.

This publication is linked to the following EFSA Supporting Publications article: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.EN-1182/full, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.EN-1171/full

Management of North American Culicoides Biting Midges: Current Knowledge and Research Needs

Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are biological vectors of two important viruses impacting North American ruminants--bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV). These viruses have been identified for over 60 years in North America, but we still lack an adequate understanding of the basic biology and ecology of the confirmed vector, Culicoides sonorensis, and know even less about other putative Culicoides vector species. The major gaps in our knowledge of the biology of Culicoides midges are broad and include an understanding of the ecology of juveniles, the identity of potential alternate vector species, interactions of midges with both pathogens and vertebrates, and the effectiveness of potential control measures. Due to these broad and numerous fundamental knowledge gaps, vector biologists and livestock producers are left with few options to respond to or understand outbreaks of EHD or BT in North America, or respond to emerging or exotic Culicoides-transmitted pathogens. Here we outline current knowledge of vector ecology and control tactics for North American Culicoides species, and delineate research recommendations aimed to fill knowledge gaps.

Effects of Direct and Indirect Exposure of Insecticides to Garden Symphylan (Symphyla: Scutigerellidae) in Laboratory Bioassays

The garden symphylan, Scutigerella immaculata Newport, is a serious soil pest whose root feeding affects yield and survival of several high valued crops in the California's central coast. Because organophosphate insecticides, widely used for S. immaculata control, are rigorously regulated and little is known about the efficacy of alternate insecticides, laboratory bioassays were conducted to determine insecticide efficacy through repellency and lethality. To determine indirect repellency (noncontact) of insecticides, choice assays were conducted where five S. immaculata were introduced into the arena to choose between insecticide-treated and untreated wells whereas, in direct repellency (contact) assays, three insecticide-treated 1-cm-diameter discs were pasted into the arena and the number of visits, time spent per visitation, and number of long-duration (>10 s) stays of five S. immaculata were quantified. To determine efficacy through direct mortality, number of S. immaculata died after 72 h were determined by introducing 10 S. immaculata to insecticide-treated soil assays. In indirect exposure bioassays, seven (clothianidin, oxamyl, zeta-cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, ethoprop, azadirachtin, and a combination of beta-cyfluthrin and imidacloprid) out of 14 insecticides tested elicited repellency to S. immaculata. Of six insecticides tested in the direct exposure assays, only tolfenpyrad elicited contact repellency. In soil assays, after 72 h of introduction, bifenthrin, oxamyl, clothianidin, zeta-cypermethrin, and tolfenpyrad caused 100, 95, 80, 44, and 44% S. immaculata mortality, respectively, which was significantly greater than distilled water and four other insecticides. The implications of these results on S. immaculata management in the California's central coast are discussed.

Evaluation of mosquito responses to pyrethroid insecticides topically applied to sheep

A rise in the incidence of mosquito-transmitted Cache Valley virus (CVV) in lambs in 2011 prompted a study to evaluate on-animal pyrethroid insecticides to reduce mosquito attacks on sheep. Using enclosure traps for 1 night per wk for 6 wk, we compared engorgement rates of mosquitoes given the opportunity to feed on untreated sheep and sheep treated with 1 Python insecticide ear tag (containing 10% zeta-cypermethrin and 20% piperonyl butoxide) per animal or 2 synergized permethrin body spray treatments (containing 2.5% permethrin and 2.5% piperonyl butoxide). During the 6-wk study, 18,920 mosquitoes were collected in the animal-baited enclosure traps. Thirteen species were identified from these collections with the floodwater species Aedes increpitus and Ae. idahoensis making up 68% of the total. Potential CVV vector species, making up 25% of the samples, included Ae. vexans, Ae. dorsalis, Culex tarsalis, and Culiseta inornata. Traps baited with untreated sheep collected 9,701 mosquitoes with 65% of these engorged. Traps baited with sheep treated with Python ear tags or permethrin spray collected 4,034 and 4,555, respectively, with engorgement rates of 23% and 35%. Blood feeding on ear-tagged sheep was significantly reduced by as much as 90% compared to the untreated sheep, and protection lasted 4 wk or longer. Permethrin spray treatments were most effective within 24 h after application and provided better protection against Ae. dorsalis than the Python tag. Effectiveness of the permethrin spray diminished 1 wk after the 2nd application was made. The effect of these treatments appeared to be repellency because negligible mosquito mortality was observed at the time of collection. Further evaluation of these insecticides under conditions of natural exposure to a mosquito-borne pathogen is warranted.