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Virgillito C, Manica M, Marini G, Rosà R, Della Torre A, Martini S, Drago A, Baseggio A, Caputo B. Evaluation of Bacillus thuringiensis Subsp. Israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus Combination Against Culex pipiens in Highly Vegetated Ditches. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MOSQUITO CONTROL ASSOCIATION 2022; 38:40-45. [PMID: 35276728 DOI: 10.2987/21-7024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Among the few mosquito larvicides available in the market, Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti) and B. sphaericus (Bs) represent the most environmentally safe alternatives. The combination of the 2 products is known to overcome their specific limitations by producing a synergistic effect. The aim of the study was to assess the effect and persistence of a single treatment with a granular Bti + Bs formulation on highly vegetated ditches in northeastern Italy that represents the primary rural larval sites for Culex pipiens, the primary vector of the West Nile virus in Europe. The analysis takes into account the nonlinear temporal effects on the population dynamics of larvae and pupae. The results showed a dramatic reduction in mosquito larval abundance 24 h posttreatment (93%) and was effective against larvae up to 22 days (100%). The residual effect after 28 days was 99.5%, and a limited residual effect was observed after 39 days (31.2%). A reduction in pupal density was observed after 4 days (70%) and was >98% from days 14 to 28 posttreatment, persisting for up to 39 days (84% after 39 days). The results demonstrate the effective use of the Bti + Bs formulation against Cx. pipiens in vegetated ditches in rural areas. Our modeling framework provides a flexible statistical approach to predict the residual effect of the product over time, in order to plan a seasonal intervention scheme.
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Bacterial Toxins Active against Mosquitoes: Mode of Action and Resistance. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080523. [PMID: 34437394 PMCID: PMC8402332 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Larvicides based on the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis svar. israelensis (Bti) and Lysinibacillus sphaericus are effective and environmentally safe compounds for the control of dipteran insects of medical importance. They produce crystals that display specific and potent insecticidal activity against larvae. Bti crystals are composed of multiple protoxins: three from the three-domain Cry type family, which bind to different cell receptors in the midgut, and one cytolytic (Cyt1Aa) protoxin that can insert itself into the cell membrane and act as surrogate receptor of the Cry toxins. Together, those toxins display a complex mode of action that shows a low risk of resistance selection. L. sphaericus crystals contain one major binary toxin that display an outstanding persistence in field conditions, which is superior to Bti. However, the action of the Bin toxin based on its interaction with a single receptor is vulnerable for resistance selection in insects. In this review we present the most recent data on the mode of action and synergism of these toxins, resistance issues, and examples of their use worldwide. Data reported in recent years improved our understanding of the mechanism of action of these toxins, showed that their combined use can enhance their activity and counteract resistance, and reinforced their relevance for mosquito control programs in the future years.
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Uragayala S, Kamaraju R, Tiwari S, Ghosh SK, Valecha N. Field testing & evaluation of the efficacy & duration of effectiveness of a biolarvicide, Bactivec ® SC ( Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis SH-14) in Bengaluru, India. Indian J Med Res 2018; 147:299-307. [PMID: 29923520 PMCID: PMC6022384 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_1631_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & objectives: Different formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) have been tested against different mosquito vectors and other insects for their residual activity. In the present study, the efficacy and residual activity of a new formulation of Bti (Bactivec Suspension Concentrate) were evaluated against immature stages of Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae), Aedes aegypti Linnaeus (Diptera: Culicidae) and Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae), in natural habitats in Phase II and Phase III in Bengaluru, India. Methods: Preferential breeding habitats of the mosquito species were selected and four dosages (0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 ml/50 l) were tested in Phase II trial. Two most effective dosages, 0.5 and 1 ml/50 l were selected for Phase III trial. The evaluation was carried out essentially following the guidelines of the World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme. Pre-treatment and post-treatment densities were recorded at regular intervals, and >80 per cent reduction in pupae was taken as the duration of effectiveness. Results: Bactivec SC treated at the dosage of 1 ml/50 l could produce 10-17 days efficacy (>80% reduction in pupae) in clean water habitats tested, whereas 0.5 ml/50 l dosage showed residual activity from 7 to 14 days against Ae. aegypti and An. stephensi in Phase III studies. In polluted water habitats, 4-7 days efficacy could be recorded against Cx. quinquefasciatus in Phase III. Interpretation & conclusions: The Bactivec SC formulation was operationally feasible and easy to handle. For the control of Anopheles and Aedes mosquitoes in freshwater habitats, 1 ml/50 l dosage was found effective, whereas in polluted water habitats against Cx. quinquefasciatus 5 ml/m2 was found effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sreehari Uragayala
- ICMR- National Institute of Malaria Research Field Unit, Bengaluru, India
| | | | | | | | - Neena Valecha
- ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
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Mavridis K, Fotakis EA, Kioulos I, Mpellou S, Konstantas S, Varela E, Gewehr S, Diamantopoulos V, Vontas J. Detection of West Nile Virus - Lineage 2 in Culex pipiens mosquitoes, associated with disease outbreak in Greece, 2017. Acta Trop 2018; 182:64-68. [PMID: 29474832 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
During July-October 2017 a WNV outbreak took place in the Peloponnese, Southern Greece with five confirmed deaths. During routine monitoring survey in the Peloponnese, supported by the local Prefecture, we have confirmed the presence of all three Culex pipiens biotypes in the region, with a high percentage of Culex pipiens/molestus hybrids (37.0%) which are considered a highly competent vector of WNV. Kdr mutations related to pyrethroid resistance were found at relatively low levels (14.3% homozygosity) while no mosquitoes harboring the recently identified chitin synthase diflubenzuron-resistance mutations were detected in the region. As an immediate action, following the disease outbreak (within days), we collected a large number of mosquitoes using CO2 CDC traps from the villages in the Argolis area of the Peloponnese, where high incidence of WNV human infections were reported. WNV lineage 2 was detected in 3 out of 47 Cx. pipiens mosquito pools (detection rate = 6.38%). The virus was not detected in any other mosquito species, such as Aedes albopictus, sampled from the region at the time of the disease outbreak. Our results show that detection of WNV lineage 2 in Cx. pipiens pools is spatially and chronologically associated with human clinical cases, thus implicating Cx. pipiens mosquitoes as the most likely WNV vector. The absence of diflubenzuron resistance mutations and the low frequency of pyrethroid (kdr) resistance mutations indicates the suitability of these insecticides for Cx. pipiens control, in the format of larvicides and/or residual spraying applications respectively, which was indeed the main (evidence based) response, following the disease outbreak.
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Ravasi D, Guidi V, Flacio E, Lüthy P, Perron K, Lüdin S, Tonolla M. Investigation of temperature conditions in Swiss urban and suburban microhabitats for the overwintering suitability of diapausing Aedes albopictus eggs. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:212. [PMID: 29587850 PMCID: PMC5870348 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2803-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Switzerland, the invasive Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, is firmly established in the Canton of Ticino, south of the Alps. According to a large-scale distribution model developed in 2013, suitable climatic conditions for the establishment of Ae. albopictus north of the Alps are found in Basel and Geneva while Zurich appears to be characterized by winters currently being too cold for survival of diapausing eggs. However, the spatial resolution of large-scale distribution models might not be sufficient to detect particular climatic conditions existing in urban settings, such as the presence of microclimatic temperatures, which may positively influence the probability of diapausing eggs to overwinter. In order to investigate this, microclimatic monitoring of potential diapausing sites (i.e. catch basins) and external controls was performed in January 2017 in Ticino and within the cities of Basel, Geneva and Zurich. RESULTS Mean January temperatures in catch basins of Basel, Geneva and Zurich were always higher than the -1 °C temperature threshold previously set for survival probability of diapausing eggs, while mean January temperatures were below -1 °C in several catch basins south of the Alps, where Ae. albopictus eggs currently overwinter. The catch basin absolute January daily minimum temperatures both south and north of the Alps were in general higher than the external control temperatures. Absolute January daily minimum temperatures in catch basins in Basel, Geneva and Zurich were always above -10 °C, indicating that diapausing Ae. albopictus eggs could potentially survive winter nights in urban areas north of the Alps. CONCLUSIONS The findings confirmed previous conclusions that urban catch basins can provide favourable conditions for overwintering of diapausing eggs compared to more cold-exposed sites. The results confirmed the presence of suitable winter conditions for the establishment of Ae. albopictus in the cities of Basel and Geneva. In addition, the microclimate-scale analysis added new information compared to the previous large-scale prevision model by showing that also the city of Zurich could provide winter conditions suitable for the establishment of Ae. albopictus. This illustrates the importance of the resolution of climate data in using models to predict Ae. albopictus distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damiana Ravasi
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, via Mirasole 22A, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Valeria Guidi
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, via Mirasole 22A, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Eleonora Flacio
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, via Mirasole 22A, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Peter Lüthy
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Karl Perron
- Microbiology Unit, Plant Biology Department, Sciences III University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Samuel Lüdin
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, via Mirasole 22A, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Microbiology Unit, Plant Biology Department, Sciences III University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
- Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez Laboratory, Biology Division, 3700 Spiez, Switzerland
| | - Mauro Tonolla
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, via Mirasole 22A, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Microbiology Unit, Plant Biology Department, Sciences III University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
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Lawler SP. Environmental safety review of methoprene and bacterially-derived pesticides commonly used for sustained mosquito control. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2017; 139:335-343. [PMID: 28187397 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Some pesticides are applied directly to aquatic systems to reduce numbers of mosquito larvae (larvicides) and thereby reduce transmission of pathogens that mosquitoes vector to humans and wildlife. Sustained, environmentally-safe control of larval mosquitoes is particularly needed for highly productive waters (e.g., catchment basins, water treatment facilities, septic systems), but also for other habitats to maintain control and reduce inspection costs. Common biorational pesticides include the insect juvenile hormone mimic methoprene and pesticides derived from the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis, Lysinibacillus sphaericus and Saccharopolyspora spinosa (spinosad). Health agencies, the public and environmental groups have especially debated the use of methoprene because some studies have shown toxic effects on non-target organisms. However, many studies have demonstrated its apparent environmental safety. This review critically evaluates studies pertinent to the environmental safety of using methoprene to control mosquito larvae, and provides concise assessments of the bacterial larvicides that provide sustained control of mosquitoes. The review first outlines the ecological and health effects of mosquitoes, and distinguishes between laboratory toxicity and environmental effects. The article then interprets non-target toxicity findings in light of measured environmental concentrations of methoprene (as used in mosquito control) and field studies of its non-target effects. The final section evaluates information on newer formulations of bacterially-derived pesticides for sustained mosquito control. Results show that realized environmental concentrations of methoprene were usually 2-5µg/kg (range 2-45µg/kg) and that its motility is limited. These levels were not toxic to the vast majority of vertebrates and invertebrates tested in laboratories, except for a few species of zooplankton, larval stages of some other crustaceans, and small Diptera. Studies in natural habitats have not documented population reductions except in small Diptera. Bacterial larvicides showed good results for sustained control with similarly limited environmental effects, except for spinosad, which had broader effects on insects in mesocosms and temporary pools. These findings should be useful to a variety of stakeholders in informing decisions on larvicide use to protect public and environmental health in a 'One Health' framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon P Lawler
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Harbison JE, Henry M, Corcoran PC, Zazra D, Xamplas C. Small-Scale Trials Suggest Increasing Applications of Natular™ XRT and Natular™ T30 Larvicide Tablets May Not Improve Mosquito Reduction in Some Catch Basins. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INSIGHTS 2016; 10:31-34. [PMID: 26792998 PMCID: PMC4712978 DOI: 10.4137/ehi.s36722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Stormwater catch basins are commonly treated with larvicides by mosquito control agencies to reduce local populations of mosquito species capable of transmitting West Nile virus. Recent evidence suggests that extended-release larvicides formulated to last up to 180 days in catch basins may not be effective in some basins due to chronic flushing, rapid dissolution, or burying of treatment in sump debris. To investigate if increasing the number of applications could improve effectiveness, a small study was performed over 13 weeks in 2015 to evaluate two extended-release larvicides (Natular™ XRT 180-day tablets and Natular™ T30 30-day tablets) and a larvicide oil (CocoBear™). Over the course of 13 weeks, three groups of eight basins were monitored for mosquitoes, each group receiving Natular™ XRT, Natular™ T30, or CocoBear™ larvicides. All basins received a single application at the beginning of the study period. Once mosquitoes in a basin surpassed the treatment threshold during weekly monitoring, an additional application of the associated larvicide was given to that basin. The number of applications during the study period ranged from 1 to 10 for CocoBear™ basins, 1 to 7 for T30 basins, and 2 to 8 for XRT basins. Overall, the average number of applications and the cost of larvicide per basin were 4.4 applications at $0.66 per Coco-Bear™ basin, 4.4 applications at $6.26 per T30 basin, and 4 applications at $16.56 per XRT basin. Basins treated with XRT and T30 needed reapplications more often than expected, yet were no more effective than CocoBear™, suggesting that increasing the frequency of application of these larvicide formulations may not provide increased mosquito reduction in some basins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin E. Harbison
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Loyola University Medical Center, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
- North Shore Mosquito Abatement District, Northfield, IL, USA
| | - Marlon Henry
- North Shore Mosquito Abatement District, Northfield, IL, USA
| | | | - Dave Zazra
- North Shore Mosquito Abatement District, Northfield, IL, USA
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Harbison JE, Layden JE, Xamplas C, Zazra D, Henry M, Ruiz MO. Observed loss and ineffectiveness of mosquito larvicides applied to catch basins in the northern suburbs of chicago IL, 2014. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INSIGHTS 2015; 9:1-5. [PMID: 25987841 PMCID: PMC4406279 DOI: 10.4137/ehi.s24311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In the northeastern part of the greater Chicago metropolitan area, the North Shore Mosquito Abatement District (NSMAD) treats approximately 50,000 catch basins each season with larvicide tablets as part of its effort to reduce local populations of the West Nile virus (WNV) vector Culex pipiens. During the 2014 season, an NSMAD technician monitored a subset of 60-195 basins weekly for 18 weeks among the communities of the District for the presence of mosquitoes. Monitoring found no clear evidence in the reduction of mosquitoes with the use of larvicides, and visual inspections of 211 larvicide-treated basins found that the majority (162, 76.8%) were missing tablets 1-17 weeks after applications. This loss of treatment may be due to the rapid dissolution or flushing of larvicides and would help explain why the larvicide appeared to be ineffective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin E Harbison
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Jennifer E Layden
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
- Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
| | | | - Dave Zazra
- North Shore Mosquito Abatement District, Northfield, IL, USA
| | - Marlon Henry
- North Shore Mosquito Abatement District, Northfield, IL, USA
| | - Marilyn O’Hara Ruiz
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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Harbison JE, Sinacore JM, Henry M, Xamplas C, Dugas LR, Ruiz MO. Identification of larvicide-resistant catch basins from three years of larvicide trials in a suburb of chicago, IL. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INSIGHTS 2014; 8:1-7. [PMID: 25392699 PMCID: PMC4216650 DOI: 10.4137/ehi.s16014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Revised: 08/31/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The tens of thousands of catch basins found in many urban areas are a primary target of local vector control agencies for seasonal application of extended-release larvicides. A concern with using larvicides in these structures is that active ingredients can be hampered by high flows, debris, and sediment, all of which are common to these structures. As such a certain proportion of basins may be "resistant" to larvicide treatments due to site specific characteristics that may promote these and other factors that hinder larvicide action and/or promote mosquito infestation. Analyses from three years of larvicide efficacy trials suggest that over a quarter of basins in the study area may not be receiving adequate protection from a single dose of larvicide that is routinely applied. Implications of increasing the dose and/or toxicity of larvicide treatments are discussed further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin E Harbison
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Public Health Sciences, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL, USA
- North Shore Mosquito Abatement District, Northfield, IL, USA
| | - James M Sinacore
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Public Health Sciences, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Marlon Henry
- North Shore Mosquito Abatement District, Northfield, IL, USA
| | | | - Lara R Dugas
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Public Health Sciences, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Marilyn O’Hara Ruiz
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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