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Durcan C, Hossain M, Chagnon G, Perić D, Girard E. Characterization of the layer, direction and time-dependent mechanical behaviour of the human oesophagus and the effects of formalin preservation. J R Soc Interface 2024; 21:20230592. [PMID: 38593841 PMCID: PMC11003784 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The mechanical characterization of the oesophagus is essential for applications such as medical device design, surgical simulations and tissue engineering, as well as for investigating the organ's pathophysiology. However, the material response of the oesophagus has not been established ex vivo in regard to the more complex aspects of its mechanical behaviour using fresh, human tissue: as of yet, in the literature, only the hyperelastic response of the intact wall has been studied. Therefore, in this study, the layer-dependent, anisotropic, visco-hyperelastic behaviour of the human oesophagus was investigated through various mechanical tests. For this, cyclic tests, with increasing stretch levels, were conducted on the layers of the human oesophagus in the longitudinal and circumferential directions and at two different strain rates. Additionally, stress-relaxation tests on the oesophageal layers were carried out in both directions. Overall, the results show discrete properties in each layer and direction, highlighting the importance of treating the oesophagus as a multi-layered composite material with direction-dependent behaviour. Previously, the authors conducted layer-dependent cyclic experimentation on formalin-embalmed human oesophagi. A comparison between the fresh and embalmed tissue response was carried out and revealed surprising similarities in terms of anisotropy, strain-rate dependency, stress-softening and hysteresis, with the main difference between the two preservation states being the magnitude of these properties. As formalin fixation is known to notably affect the formation of cross-links between the collagen of biological materials, the differences may reveal the influence of cross-links on the mechanical behaviour of soft tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciara Durcan
- Zienkiewicz Institute for Modelling, Data and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK
- CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Mokarram Hossain
- Zienkiewicz Institute for Modelling, Data and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK
| | - Grégory Chagnon
- CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Djordje Perić
- Zienkiewicz Institute for Modelling, Data and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK
| | - Edouard Girard
- CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble 38000, France
- Laboratoire d’Anatomie des Alpes Françaises, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble, France
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Durcan C, Hossain M, Chagnon G, Perić D, Girard E. Mechanical experimentation of the gastrointestinal tract: a systematic review. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2024; 23:23-59. [PMID: 37935880 PMCID: PMC10901955 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-023-01773-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
The gastrointestinal (GI) organs of the human body are responsible for transporting and extracting nutrients from food and drink, as well as excreting solid waste. Biomechanical experimentation of the GI organs provides insight into the mechanisms involved in their normal physiological functions, as well as understanding of how diseases can cause disruption to these. Additionally, experimental findings form the basis of all finite element (FE) modelling of these organs, which have a wide array of applications within medicine and engineering. This systematic review summarises the experimental studies that are currently in the literature (n = 247) and outlines the areas in which experimentation is lacking, highlighting what is still required in order to more fully understand the mechanical behaviour of the GI organs. These include (i) more human data, allowing for more accurate modelling for applications within medicine, (ii) an increase in time-dependent studies, and (iii) more sophisticated in vivo testing methods which allow for both the layer- and direction-dependent characterisation of the GI organs. The findings of this review can also be used to identify experimental data for the readers' own constitutive or FE modelling as the experimental studies have been grouped in terms of organ (oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine or rectum), test condition (ex vivo or in vivo), number of directions studied (isotropic or anisotropic), species family (human, porcine, feline etc.), tissue condition (intact wall or layer-dependent) and the type of test performed (biaxial tension, inflation-extension, distension (pressure-diameter), etc.). Furthermore, the studies that investigated the time-dependent (viscoelastic) behaviour of the tissues have been presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciara Durcan
- Zienkiewicz Centre for Modelling, Data and AI, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, SA1 8EN, UK
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Mokarram Hossain
- Zienkiewicz Centre for Modelling, Data and AI, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, SA1 8EN, UK.
| | - Grégory Chagnon
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Djordje Perić
- Zienkiewicz Centre for Modelling, Data and AI, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, SA1 8EN, UK
| | - Edouard Girard
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, 38000, Grenoble, France
- Laboratoire d'Anatomie des Alpes Françaises, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
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He XJ, Huang TZ, Wang PJ, Peng XC, Li WC, Wang J, Tang J, Feng N, Yu MH. Morphological and biomechanical remodeling of the hepatic portal vein in a swine model of portal hypertension. Ann Vasc Surg 2011; 26:259-67. [PMID: 22192237 DOI: 10.1016/j.avsg.2011.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 10/09/2011] [Accepted: 10/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To obtain the morphological and biomechanical remodeling of portal veins in swine with portal hypertension (PHT), so as to provide some mechanical references and theoretical basis for clinical practice about PHT. METHODS Twenty white pigs were used in this study, 14 of them were subjected to both carbon tetrachloride- and pentobarbital-containing diet to induce experimental liver cirrhosis and PHT, and the remaining animals served as the normal controls. The morphological remodeling of portal veins was observed. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression profile in the vessel wall was assessed at both mRNA and protein level. The biomechanical changes of the hepatic portal veins were evaluated through assessing the following indicators: the incremental elastic modulus, pressure-strain elastic modulus, volume elastic modulus, and the incremental compliance. RESULTS The swine PHT model was successfully established. The percentages for the microstructural components and the histological data significantly changed in the experimental group. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression was significantly downregulated in the portal veins of the experimental group. Three incremental elastic moduli (the incremental elastic modulus, pressure-strain elastic modulus, and volume elastic modulus) of the portal veins from PHT animals were significantly larger than those of the controls (P < 0.05), whereas the incremental compliance of hepatic portal vein decreased. CONCLUSIONS Our study suggests that the morphological and biomechanical properties of swine hepatic portal veins change significantly during the PHT process, which may play a critical role in the development of PHT and serve as potential therapeutic targets during clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Ju He
- Laboratory of Biomechanics, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, China
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VINTER-JENSEN LARS. Pharmacological effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF) with focus on the urinary and gastrointestinal tracts. APMIS 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.1999.tb05690.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Sharma P, Hagerstrand I, Sharma DK. Histologic and manometric studies on the esophagus following endoscopic sclerotherapy. Dig Dis Sci 2009; 54:1713-9. [PMID: 19034664 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-008-0536-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2008] [Accepted: 09/11/2008] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this work was to study the histologic and manometric changes in the distal esophagus beyond 2 years following endoscopic sclerotherapy (EST) and/or surgical intervention, and to try to understand the etiological factors associated with these changes. PATIENTS AND INTERVENTIONS Forty patients, with an average age of 61.5 years, were studied for 2-12 years following sclerotherapy and/or surgical intervention. The causes of liver disease were alcoholic cirrhosis (78.6%), primary biliary cirrhosis (14.3%), and chronic aggressive hepatitis (7.1%). A predominant number of cases (65%) had a mesocaval interposition shunt due to the failure of EST, 32.5% EST alone, and 2.5% esophageal devascularization. All patients had esophageal manometry following mucosal biopsies taken in duplicate endoscopically from three levels of the distal esophagus. RESULTS In the EST and shunt groups, 88.5% had manometric abnormalities, esophagitis, and chronic inflammatory changes. In the EST group, all but two patients had manometric abnormalities and chronic inflammatory changes. Analysis of the patient groups on the basis of the number of EST sessions and the amount of sclerosant injected showed that both histologic changes and dysmotility were more profound in those treated over five times with EST. The differences were significant. CONCLUSION It appears that EST causes persistent manometric abnormalities and chronic inflammatory changes in the distal esophagus, the severity of which seems to vary directly with the frequency of sclerotherapy and not amount of sclerosant injected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peeyush Sharma
- Department of Surgery, Lund University Hospital, Lund, Sweden.
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Zhao J, Liao D, Gregersen H. Biomechanical and histomorphometric esophageal remodeling in type 2 diabetic GK rats. J Diabetes Complications 2007; 21:34-40. [PMID: 17189872 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2005.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2004] [Revised: 12/12/2005] [Accepted: 12/29/2005] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus induces remodeling of the morphology and mechanical properties in the gastrointestinal tract. This study aimed to investigate the histomorphometric and biomechanical remodeling of esophagus in the diabetic type 2 model Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rats. Five male diabetic GK rats and five male nondiabetic Wistar rats were used in this study. The mechanical test was performed in vitro where the whole esophagus was stretched to its in situ length and distended with pressures up to 10 cm H2O using a ramp distension protocol. The pressure and outer diameter were recorded. Circumferential stress (force per area) and strain (deformation) were computed from the diameter and pressure data using the zero-stress state as reference. The zero-stress state was obtained by cutting esophageal rings radially. This caused the rings to open up into a sector. The thickness, area, and the opening angle were measured from the digitized images. The layer circumference, thickness, and area were measured from histological slides. The collagen fraction was determined from histological slides with Van Gieson stain. Diabetes induced pronounced morphometric changes, e.g., the wall thickness and wall cross-sectional area significantly increased in the GK rats (P<.01). Histologically, the circumference, thickness, and area of the muscle layer and the collagen fraction of mucosa-submucosa layer were significantly increased in the GK rats (P<.01). The opening angle, outer residual strain, and residual strain difference to wall thickness ratio decreased significantly in the GK rats (P<.05 and P<.01). Furthermore, the circumferential stiffness of the esophagus is significantly higher in the GK rats than in the normal rats (P<.01). In conclusion, histomorphometric and biomechanical remodeling is a feature of the esophageal wall in GK rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingbo Zhao
- Center of Excellence in Visceral Biomechanics and Pain, Aalborg Hospital, and Center of Sensory-Motor Interaction, Aalborg University, DK-9220 Aalborg, Denmark
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Yang J, Zhao J, Liao D, Gregersen H. Biomechanical properties of the layered oesophagus and its remodelling in experimental type-1 diabetes. J Biomech 2006; 39:894-904. [PMID: 16488228 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2005.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2004] [Accepted: 01/23/2005] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Passive biomechanical properties in term of the stress-strain relationship and the shear modulus were studied in separated muscle layer and mucosa-submucosa layer in the oesophagus of normal and STZ (streptozotocin)-induced diabetic rats. The mucosa-submucosa and muscle layers were separated using microsurgery and studied in vitro using a self-developed test machine. Stepwise elongation and inflation plus continuous twist were applied to the samples. A constitutive equation based on a strain energy function was used for the stress-strain analysis. Five material constants were obtained for both layers. The mucosa-submucosa layer was significantly stiffer than the muscle layer in longitudinal, circumferential and circumferential-longitudinal shear direction. The mechanical constants of the oesophagus show that the oesophageal wall was anisotropic, the stiffness in the longitudinal direction was higher than in the circumferential direction in the intact oesophagus (P < 0.001) and in the muscle layer (P < 0.05). Diabetes-induced pronounced increase in the outer perimeter, inner perimeter and lumen area in both the muscle and mucosa-submucosa layer. The growth of the mucosa-submucosa layer (P < 0.001) was more pronounced than the muscle layer (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the circumferential stiffness of the mucosa-submucosa layer increased 28 days after STZ treatment. In conclusion, the oesophagus is a non-homogeneous anisotropic tube. Thus, the mechanical properties differed between layers as well as in different directions. Morphological and biomechanical remodelling is prominent in the diabetic oesophagus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yang
- Centre of Excellence in Visceral Biomechanics and Pain, Aalborg Hospital and Centre of Sensory-Motor Interaction, Aalborg University, DK-9100 Aalborg, Nord Jylland, Denmark
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Zeng YJ, Qiao YH, Yang J, Gregersen H, Zhang EP, Xu XH, Xu H. Torque properties of a rat oesophagus for physiological and diabetic conditions. Physiol Meas 2004; 25:1211-21. [PMID: 15535186 DOI: 10.1088/0967-3334/25/5/011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In this paper the torque of an oesophagus is studied for physiological and diabetic conditions. Since the function of the oesophagus is mainly mechanical, this work is focused on providing quantitative measurement of the passive biomechanical properties of the oesophagus torque. The oesophagus was treated as a membrane when calculating the stress and strain. The torque versus twist-angle relation was approximated to be linear at a specified pressure and longitudinal stretch ratio. Thus, the shear modulus can be computed by the torque, twist angle and polar moment of inertia in this state. The shear modulus varies greatly with the changing inflation pressure and longitudinal stretch ratio. When the longitudinal stretch ratio or transmural pressure is constant, the shear modulus is increased after 28 days of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y-J Zeng
- Forensic Medicine Department, Medical School, Santou University, Santou, People's Republic of China.
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Zeng YJ, Yang J, Zhao JB, Liao DH, Zhang EP, Gregersen H, Xu XH, Xu H, Xu CQ. Morphologic and biomechanical changes of rat oesophagus in experimental diabetes. World J Gastroenterol 2004; 10:2519-23. [PMID: 15300896 PMCID: PMC4572153 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v10.i17.2519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM: To study morphologic and biomechanical changes of oesophagus in diabetes rats.
METHODS: Diabetes was induced by a single injection of streptozotocin (STZ). The type of diabetes mellitus induced by parenteral STZ administration in rats was insulin-dependent (type I). The samples were excised and studied in vitro using a self-developed biomaterial test machine.
RESULTS: The body mass was decreased after 4 d with STZ treatment. The length of esophagus shortened after 4, 7, 14 d. The opening angle increased after 14 d. The shear, longitudinal and circumferential stiffness were obviously raised after 28 d of STZ treatment.
CONCLUSION: The changes of passive biomechanical properties reflect intra-structural alteration of tissue to a certain extent. This alteration will lead to some dysfunction of movement. For example, tension of esophageal wall will change due to some obstructive disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Jun Zeng
- Forensic Medicine Department, Medical College, Shantou University, Shantou 515031, Guangdong Province, China.
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Wong WR, Lam E, Huang RC, Wong RS, Morris C, Hackett J. Applications, and efficient large-scale production, of recombinant human epidermal growth factor. Biotechnol Genet Eng Rev 2002; 18:51-71. [PMID: 11530698 DOI: 10.1080/02648725.2001.10648008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W R Wong
- Department of Biochemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
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Marcinkiewicz M, Grabowska SZ, Czyzewska E. Role of epidermal growth factor (EGF) in oesophageal mucosal integrity. Curr Med Res Opin 1998; 14:145-53. [PMID: 9787980 DOI: 10.1185/03007999809113354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Oesophageal mucosa has well established protective mechanisms, which operate within pre-epithelial, epithelial and post-epithelial compartments. Since refluxed acid and pepsin always act from the luminal side of the mucosa, protective factors like EGF, operating as a part of pre-epithelial defence, are thought to be pivotal in the maintenance of the integrity of the oesophageal mucosa. The significant contribution of salivary EGF to the quality of the oesophageal mucosal barrier has been demonstrated in an experimental setting and in a clinical scenario. Patients with low salivary EGF levels are predisposed to severe oesophageal damage if they develop gastro-oesophageal reflux and are a high-risk group for development of Barrett's oesophagus. Not only the salivary glands but also the human oesophagus has a profound ability to elaborate and release EGF. Some changes in luminal release of EGF during oesophageal mucosal exposure to intraluminal damaging factors imply its role in the oesophageal protective mechanisms. To exert biological effects within the oesophageal mucosal compartment, EGF requires binding to the ligand-binding domain of its receptor. This process results in receptor dimerisation, autophosphorylation and activation of intracellular signal transduction pathways. EGF receptors are localised on the basolateral and luminal aspect of the mucosal cells playing an important role in fast regeneration of oesophageal epithelium through the high mitotic activity of its proliferative zone. An increase in the rate of salivary EGF secretion during masticatory stimulation suggests its potential therapeutic benefit in the treatment of patients with damaged oesophageal mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Marcinkiewicz
- Department of Gastroenterology, J. Sniadecki's District Hospital, Bialystok, Poland
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Vinter-Jensen L, Duch BU, Petersen JA, Ryslev A, Gregersen H. Systemic treatment with epidermal growth factor in the rat. Biomechanical properties of the growing small intestine. REGULATORY PEPTIDES 1996; 61:135-42. [PMID: 8852816 DOI: 10.1016/0167-0115(95)00158-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Prolonged treatment with epidermal growth factor (EGF) in the rat provides an experimental model to growth of the gastrointestinal tract. We treated female Wistar rats for 0 (n = 15), 1 (n = 8), 2 (n = 8), and 4 (n = 8) weeks with subcutaneous EGF (i50 micrograms.kg-1.day-1). Segments were taken from locations at 10, 50 and 90% along the length of the small intestine, weighed, the wall thickness was measured and the luminal cross-sectional area and passive biomechanical properties were assessed using impedance planimetry. In addition, the wall composition was evaluated on histological sections. The weight of the total small intestine and of the three segments (measured in mg.cm-1) increased with the duration of the EGF treatment due to mucosal and muscular growth. After 1 week of treatment the wall thickness increased. After 2 weeks of treatment the cross-sectional area began to increase. The circumferential stress-strain distributions revealed translation of the curves to the right in the graphs implying reduced wall stiffness during EGF treatment. In conclusion EGF treatment for 1 to 4 weeks caused a time-dependent increase in intestinal weight. The growth was characterized by increased wall thickness, increased cross-sectional area and reduced wall stiffness.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Vinter-Jensen
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, KH Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
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