β-Thalassemia trait association with autoimmune diseases: β-globin locus proximity to the immunity genes or role of hemorphins?

Non-canonical hemoglobin: An updated review on its ubiquitous expression

Hemoglobin, once thought to be exclusive to erythrocytes, has been identified to be expressed in various cell types over the past several decades. While hemoglobin's function within erythrocytes is primarily characterized as a gaseous transport molecule, its function within non-erythrocyte cells varies among different cell types, and in many cases, remains to be fully elucidated. Despite this variability, hemoglobin expression seems to broadly function as a redox modulator, whether it is involved in the hypoxic response, mitochondrial function, antioxidant balance or, like in erythrocytes, gas transport. This review provides an updated summary of the most recent discoveries of hemoglobin in non-erythrocyte cells. While discussing the function and regulation of this ubiquitous protein, we additionally compare these cell-specific details to identify commonalities throughout the diverse group of hemoglobin-expressing cells. Lastly, we discuss potential implications of non-canonical hemoglobin in various disease states such neurodegeneration, autoimmune disorders, psychological trauma, and hemoglobinopathies, while providing future directions for hemoglobin research.

Iron overload is positively associated with the incidence of osteoarthritis: A NHANES cross-sectional study

With the aging of the global population and the increase in the number of people with conditions such as obesity, the incidence of osteoarthritis (OA) is increasing annually. Clinical studies have shown that excessive accumulation of iron in joints is associated with age-related OA. However, there have been no reports on the relationship between iron metabolism and osteoarthritis. A STROBE-compliant cross-sectional observational study, was carried out and analyzed from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2001 to 2020, including data on serum iron, transferrin saturation, serum ferritin, total iron-binding capacity, and transferrin receptors, as well as data on osteoarthritis. This cross-sectional study was conducted to explore the relationship between serum iron levels, osteoarthritis, and related metabolic factors. By adjusting the model and using quantile logistic regression models, the interaction between human body iron content and the aforementioned variables was analyzed. A total of 56,323 participants over 5 cycles were assessed for iron levels. After adjusting the model for age, sex, race, education level, marital status, total energy intake, physical activity, drinking, BMI, smoking, hypertension, and diabetes, we found that in different quantile regression results, serum iron was associated with OA, Q4: OR = 1.231 (95%CI: 1.009-1.501, P < .05). Ferritin is associated with OA, Q2: OR = 1.309 (95%CI: 1.012-1.692, P < .05); Q3: OR = 1.424 (95%CI: 1.129-1.797, P < .01); Q4: OR = 1.280 (95%CI: 1.013-1.616, P < .05). This cross-sectional study found that serum iron and transferrin saturation levels were positively correlated with OA incidence, suggesting that iron overload is a risk factor for OA. Large-sample prospective cohort studies are needed to confirm the correlation between iron overload and OA.

Prevalence of thyroid dysfunctions and thyroid autoantibodies in Thai patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: An age- and sex-matched controlled study

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence of thyroid dysfunctions and thyroid autoantibodies in Thai systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients, and compare them with age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HCs). Associations between thyroid dysfunctions and SLE disease activity, and associated factors for thyroid dysfunctions in SLE also were determined.

METHOD

One hundred SLE patients, without apparent clinical thyroid disease, attended the Rheumatology Clinic between November 2021 and October 2022, were enrolled into this study. HCs were matched to SLE cases by age and sex (ratio of 1:1). Clinical manifestations, SLE disease activity and medication received were collected in all SLE patients. Thyroid function tests and thyroid autoantibodies (anti-thyroglobulin: anti-TG and anti-thyroid peroxidase: anti-TPO) were collected from all participants.

RESULTS

When compared with HCs, SLE patients had higher prevalence of thyroid dysfunctions, hypothyroidism and euthyroid sick syndrome (28% vs. 7%, p < .001, and 12% vs. 2%, p = .010, and 6% vs. 0%, p = .013, respectively). Prevalence of isolated hypothyroxinemia was higher numerically in SLE patients (9% vs. 3%, p = .074). Prevalence of anti-TG or anti-TPO was no different between SLE patients and HCs (16% vs. 18%, p = .707). There was no association between SLE disease activity and abnormal thyroid functions or thyroid autoantibodies. Family history of thyroid disease and prednisolone use (>10 mg/day) were associated factors for thyroid abnormalities with adjusted OR (95% CI) of 6.13 (1.58-23.75), p = .009 and 4.00 (1.37-11.70), p = .011, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Thyroid dysfunctions were more prevalent in SLE patients. Family history of thyroid disease and prednisolone use (>10 mg/day) were independent associated factors of thyroid abnormalities.

Electrokinetic properties of healthy and β-thalassemia erythrocyte membranes under in vitro exposure to static magnetic field

Introduction: The current understanding of the biological impacts of a static magnetic field (SMF) is restricted to the direct interactions of the magnetic field with biological membranes. The electrokinetic (zeta) potential is an electrochemical property of erythrocyte surfaces which was negatively charged in physiological media after SMF exposure (0.1‒2.0 T). Methods: The novel data about electrokinetic parameters of the erythrocytes is determined by microelectrophoresis after SMF-exposure in norm and heterozygous β-thalassemia. The methods of light scattering, lipid peroxidation, fluorescence microscopy are used. Results: The electrokinetic potential of erythrocytes in norm is increased after SMF intensities due to enhanced negatively exposed charges on the outer surface of the membrane accompanied by an increase in light scattering where changes in cell morphology are observed. Conversely, a decrease in the zeta potential of β-thalassemia erythrocytes upon SMF-treatment was determined because of the reduction in the surface electrical charge of the membranes, where a significant decrease in light scattering at 1.5 T and 2.0 T was recorded. Exposure to SMF (0.5-2.0 T) was associated with an increase in the malondialdehyde content in erythrocytes. Biophysical studies regarding the influence of SMF on the electrostatic free energy of cells shows an increase in negative values in healthy erythrocytes, which corresponds to the implementation of a spontaneous process. This is also the process in β-thalassemia cells after SMF exposure with lower negative values of free electrostatic energy than erythrocytes in norm. Discussion: The effect of static magnetic field (SMF 0.1-2.0 T) on the electrokinetic and morphological characteristics of erythrocytes in norm and β-thalassemia is determined and correlated with the increase/reduction in surface charge and shrinkage/swelling of the cells, respectively. Lipid peroxidation of healthy and β-thalassemia erythrocytes caused an enhancement of lipid peroxidation because of the higher concentrations of TBARS products in cellular suspension. SMF (0.1‒2.0 T) altered the spontaneous chemical processes with negative values of electrostatic free energy of erythrocytes in norm and β-thalassemia accompanied by a lower FITC-Concanavalin A binding affinity to membrane receptors (SMF 2.0 T). The electrokinetic properties of human erythrocytes in norm and β-thalassemia upon SMF treatment and their interrelationship with the structural-functional state of the membrane were reported. The presented work would have future fundamental applications in biomedicine.

An Uncommon Presentation of Autoimmune Hepatitis in a Child With Thalassemia Trait

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is quite rare in children. AIH is classified into two types based on the presence of autoantibodies: type 1 and type 2. The presentation of AIH varies, ranging from asymptomatic to acute or chronic hepatitis and occasionally fulminant liver failure. It can present at any age. In 20% of AIH cases, other autoimmune disorders might be present, such as diabetes mellitus and arthritis. A high index of suspicion is required for the early diagnosis of this condition. Pediatricians should consider the possibility of AIH in patients with jaundice once common causes are ruled out. The diagnosis is done on the basis of the presence of typical autoantibody titer, liver biopsy findings, and response to immunosuppressive medications. Some AIH patients may not respond to immunosuppressive therapy and may need a liver transplant. We present a case of a 12-year-old male child with thalassemia trait who was diagnosed with AIH.

Prevalence and characteristics of inflammatory rheumatic diseases in patients with thalassemia

Reports of inflammatory rheumatic diseases (IRD) in thalassemia are limited. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and clinical characteristics of IRD in patients with thalassemia disease. Consecutive adult patients with thalassemia disease, confirmed by hemoglobin typing, attending the Hematology Clinic between June 2019 and May 2021 were invited to join this study. All of them had their history taken and a physical examination for IRD. Those with IRD had their medical records reviewed. Sixty-three patients (transfusion-dependent in 50) were included in this study. There was α-, β-, and co-inheritance of α- and β-thalassemia in 22.22%, 73.02%, and 4.76% of the patients, respectively, with β-thalassemia/Hb E disease in 53.97%. Twenty-three patients had IRD (rheumatoid arthritis in 9, gout in 6, systemic lupus erythematosus in 3, spondyloarthropathy in 2, and one patient each with dermatomyositis, overlap syndrome, and unclassified polyarthralgia). Clinical manifestations and laboratory findings were similar to IRD patients in general. In 40 patients without IRD, direct and indirect Coombs tests and antinuclear antibody (ANA) were positive in 51.72%, 27.59%, and 10.26%, respectively. When comparing among these 40 patients, between those with non-transfusion-dependent thalassemia (n = 10) and those with transfusion-dependent thalassemia (n = 30), the latter had non-significantly more positive direct Coombs (60.87% vs. 16.67%), indirect Coombs (30.43% vs. 16.67%), and ANA tests (13.33% vs. 0%). The prevalence of IRD in patients with thalassemia disease was rather high. Positive direct Coombs test and ANA were common in transfusion-dependent patients.

Interplay Between Iron Overload and Osteoarthritis: Clinical Significance and Cellular Mechanisms

There are multiple diseases or conditions such as hereditary hemochromatosis, hemophilia, thalassemia, sickle cell disease, aging, and estrogen deficiency that can cause iron overload in the human body. These diseases or conditions are frequently associated with osteoarthritic phenotypes, such as progressive cartilage degradation, alterations in the microarchitecture and biomechanics of the subchondral bone, persistent joint inflammation, proliferative synovitis, and synovial pannus. Growing evidences suggest that the conditions of pathological iron overload are associated with these osteoarthritic phenotypes. Osteoarthritis (OA) is an important complication in patients suffering from iron overload-related diseases and conditions. This review aims to summarize the findings and observations made in the field of iron overload-related OA while conducting clinical and basic research works. OA is a whole-joint disease that affects the articular cartilage lining surfaces of bones, subchondral bones, and synovial tissues in the joint cavity. Chondrocytes, osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and synovial-derived cells are involved in the disease. In this review, we will elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with iron overload and the negative influence that iron overload has on joint homeostasis. The promising value of interrupting the pathologic effects of iron overload is also well discussed for the development of improved therapeutics that can be used in the field of OA.

Rheumatoid Arthritis Veiled by Sickle Beta-Thalassemia: A Rare Immunological Association Delaying Diagnosis

Sickle beta-thalassemia is a rare variant of sickle cell disease (SCD) that manifests with milder symptoms. Musculoskeletal complications arising from this condition can mimic inflammatory arthritis and hence delay the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) until irreversible damage has been done. RA has been reported to occur with SCD but there is no documented literature thus far on its co-occurrence with sickle beta-thalassemia. 

This case report elucidates the etiopathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and challenges encountered with the diagnosis and management of RA in a patient with sickle beta thalassemia.

Thalassemia and autoimmune diseases: Absence of evidence or evidence of absence?

The thalassemias are a group of inherited disorders of hemoglobin synthesis that continue to pause a global public health concern. The complex molecular and pathogenetic pathways involved in disease process lead to an array of comorbidities that require lifelong management. The disease and its treatment can also lead to alterations in immune function and a link to various autoimmune diseases has been frequently suggested. However, most data stem from single case reports and small studies that do not allow proper assessment of causal associations. Still, the high morbidity in thalassemia makes patients vulnerable to the added burden of coexisting autoimmune diseases, and special management considerations in this patient population are warranted. In this review, we explore insights and data from the literature on various autoimmune disease that have been observed in patients with thalassemia. The role of the thalassemia carrier state in modifying outcomes of patients with autoimmune diseases is also discussed.

A Rare Case of Hemoglobin E/Beta-Thalassemia and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease, with multisystemic involvement. Hemoglobin E/beta-thalassemia (HbE/beta-thalassemia) is the genotype responsible for approximately one-half of all severe beta-thalassemia worldwide. When beta-thalassemia and SLE coexist, SLE seems to have a more severe course. Here we report a 32-year-old female who presented with dizziness and fatigue was found to have severe hemolytic anemia with thrombocytopenia. Upon further evaluation, she was diagnosed with HbE/beta-thalassemia and SLE, which is a very rare association. In SLE patients, anemia usually results from the disease itself, but it is important to think of other coexisting conditions like thalassemia.

Newly diagnosed iron deficiency anemia and subsequent autoimmune disease: a matched cohort study in Taiwan

Objective: To explore whether newly diagnosed iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is associated with subsequent systemic autoimmune disease onset.Methods: The study identified 22,440 patients who received a diagnosis of IDA between 2000 and 2012 from a random sample of 1 million people from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database. The patients with IDA were randomly matched with 89,528 patients with no IDA by age, gender, and index year. We followed the 2 groups until systemic autoimmune disease onset. Cox proportional hazards analysis was used to determine autoimmune disease risk by age, gender, and comorbidities, in terms of hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).Results: Adjusted HR (95% CI) of autoimmune disease in the IDA group was 2.37 (1.92-2.92) compared with the non-IDA group. The subgroup analysis indicated that a patient with IDA had a significantly greater risk of autoimmune disease if they were female or had the comorbidities of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, cancer, allergic rhinitis, urticaria, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or chronic liver disease. The autoimmune disease was significantly more likely to occur within 2 years after a new diagnosis of IDA.Conclusions: IDA significantly increases autoimmune disease risk, particularly in female patients and patients with certain comorbidities. Clinicians should conduct further clinical evaluations and laboratory tests of autoimmune disease in patients with IDA.

A Novel Method to Identify Autoantibodies against Putative Target Proteins in Serum from beta-Thalassemia Major: A Pilot Study

Abnormal immune reactivity in patients with beta-thalassemia (beta-thal) major can be associated with poor prognosis. Immunome protein-array analysis represents a powerful approach to identify novel biomarkers. The Sengenics Immunome Protein Array platform was used for high-throughput quantification of autoantibodies in 12 serum samples collected from nine beta-thal major patients and three non-thalassemia controls, which were run together with two pooled normal sera (Sengenics Internal QC samples). To obtain more accurate and reliable results, the evaluation of the biological relevance of the shortlisted biomarkers was analyzed using an Open Target Platform online database. Elevated autoantibodies directed against 23 autoantigens on the immunome array were identified and analyzed using a penetrance fold change-based bioinformatics method. Understanding the autoantibody profile of beta-thal major patients would help to further understand the pathogenesis of the disease. The identified autoantigens may serve as potential biomarkers for the prognosis of beta-thal major.

Predictors of autoimmune hemolytic anemia in beta-thalassemia patients with underlying red blood cells autoantibodies

In beta-thalassemia patients, erythrocyte autoantibodies can remain silent or lead to Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia (AIHA).The aim of this study was to identify predictors of AIHA in beta-thalassemia patients with positive Direct Antiglobulin Test (DAT), in Tunisia. This longitudinal prognosis study was carried out on beta-thalassemia patients with a positive confirmed DAT. Predictors of AIHA were identified the Kaplan-Meier method. A Cox model analysis was used to identify independent predictors. Among 385 beta thalassemia patients, 87 developed positive DAT (22.6%). Autoimmune hemolytic anemia was occurred in 25 patients. Multivariate analysis showed that AIHA was independently associated with beta-thalassemia intermedia and similar family history of AIHA. Splenectomy in patients with positive DAT was independently associated with an increased risk of AIHA (HR = 6.175, CI: 2.049-18.612, p < 0.001). The risk of developing AIHA was higher during the first 72 transfusions. Autoimmune hemolytic anemia was significantly associated with polyspecific DAT (anti-complement and anti-IgG), blood group AB and prior alloimmunization. Whereas transfusion by phenotypic and leukoreduced blood was a protective factor. In summary, splenectomy after autoimmunization, prior alloimmunization, DAT specificity (IgG with complement), thalassemia intermedia, AB blood group and family history of AIHA were strongly associated with AIHA. Leukoreduced blood transfusion had a proven preventive role.

Rheumatological complications of beta-thalassaemia: an overview

Beta-thalassaemia, an autosomal recessive haemoglobinopathy, ranks among the most frequent monogenetic diseases globally. The severe form of the disease, beta-thalassaemia major, is accompanied by progressive involvement of multiple organ systems as a result of the disease pathophysiology as well as iron overload from blood transfusions on a regular basis. Some of the manifestations might also be caused by medications used to manage iron overload. The purpose of this review is to highlight the rheumatological complications of beta-thalassaemia, which include musculoskeletal manifestations, such as arthritis and arthropathies, joint effusions, osteoporosis, bone fractures and myalgias, in addition to CTDs, such as pseudoxanthoma elasticum. Rheumatologists are strongly encouraged to take part in a multidisciplinary approach to the management of this debilitating disease.

An evaluation of thyroid autoimmunity in patients with beta thalassemia minor: A case-control study

Objective:

The tendency to autoimmune diseases has been reported to be increased in beta thalassemia minor (BTM). The aim of this study was to evaluate whether thyroid autoimmunity is higher in BTM.

Methods:

Patients with BTM (n=86) and a healthy control group (n=93) were included in this cross-sectional case-control study. The two groups were compared in terms of anti-thyroglobulin (anti-TG) and anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) and thyroid hormones.

Results:

In the BTM group, thyroid hormones and serum anti-TG and anti-TPO antibody levels were not statistically different from those of the control group. The BTM and control groups were similar in terms of anti-thyroid antibody (ATA) positivity prevalence. In the BTM group, anti-TG was 11.6% and anti-TPO was 14% positive, while these values were 14% and 12.9% positive, respectively in the control group (p=0.806 and p=0.989, respectively). The proportion of anti-TG and/or anti-TPO antibody positive subjects was found to be 20.9% in the BTM group, and 20.4% in the control group (p=0.919). The ratios of subjects with euthyroidism, hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism were similar in both groups.

Conclusions:

As the thyroid autoimmunity prevalence in the BTM group was not increased compared to the control group, it can be considered that there is no necessity for routine ATA and thyroid hormone testing in subjects with BTM.

Hemoglobins emerging roles in mental disorders. Metabolical, genetical and immunological aspects

Hemoglobin (Hb) expression in the central nervous system is recently shown. Cooccurences of mental disorders (mainly bipolar disorder (BD) and tic disorders) with β- or α-thalassemia trait or erythrocytosis were witnessed, which may be due to peripheral or central hypoxia/hyperoxia or haplotypal gene interactions. β-Globin genes reside at 11p15.5 close to tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine receptor DRD4 and Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor, which involve in psychiatric diseases. α-Globin genes reside at 16p13.3 which associates with BD, tic disorders, ATR-16 Syndrome and Rubinstein Taybi Syndrome (RTS). CREB-Binding Protein (CEBBP)-gene is mutated in RTS, which commonly associates with mood disorders. 16p13.3 region also contains GRIN2A gene encoding N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-2A and SSTR5 (Somatostatin Receptor-5), again involving in mental disorders. We demonstrated a protective role of minor HbA2 against post-partum episodes in BD and association of higher minor HbF (fetal hemoglobin) levels with family history of psychosis in a BD-patient cohort. HbA2 increases in cardiac ischemia and in mountain dwellers indicating its likely protection against ischemia/hypoxia. HMGIY, a repressive transcription factor of δ-globin chain of HbA2 is increased in lymphocytes of schizophrenics. In autism, deletional mutations were found in BCL11A gene, which cause persistence of HbF at high levels in adulthood. Also, certain polymorphisms in BCL11A strongly associate with schizophrenia. Further, many drugs from anabolic steroids to antimalarial agents elevate HbF and may cause mania. We ascribe a protective role to HbA2 and a maladaptive detrimental role to HbF in psychopathology. We believe that future studies on hemoglobins may pave to discover novel pathogenesis mechanisms in mental disorders.

Could Heterozygous Beta Thalassemia Provide Protection Against Multiple Sclerosis?

Background

Heterozygous beta thalassemia (HBT) has been proposed to increase the risk of developing autoimmune disease. Our aim in this study was to examine the prevalence of HBT among multiple sclerosis (MS) patients.

Material/Methods

HBT frequency was investigated in our MS group (243 patients with MS). Hemoglobin electrophoresis (HE) was carried out if MS patients had a mean corpuscular volume of (MCV) <80 fL and a mean corpuscular hemoglobin level of (MCH) <27 pg/L according to a complete blood count (CBC). If MCV was lower than 80 fL, MCH was lower than 27 pg/L, and Hemoglobin A2 equal to or higher than 3.5%, a diagnosis of HBT was established. The frequency of patients with HBT in our MS patient group was statistically compared with the prevalence of HBT in the city of Istanbul, where our MS patients lived.

Results

The HBT prevalence was 0.823% (2 patients) in the MS patient group. The prevalence of HBT in Istanbul has been reported to be 4.5%. According to the z-test, the HBT prevalence in our MS patient group was significantly lower than that in Istanbul (Z=6.3611, two-sided p value <0.0001, 95% confidence interval of prevalence of HBT in our MS patient group: 0.000998–0.029413).

Conclusions

Contrary to our hypothesis at the outset of study, the reduced HBT prevalence in the MS group compared to HBT frequency in the city of Istanbul might indicate that HBT is protective against MS.

Higher minor hemoglobin A2 levels in multiple sclerosis patients correlate with lesser disease severity

OBJECTIVE

To define whether minor adult hemoglobin A2 (HbA2, α2δ2) exerts any protective activity in multiple sclerosis (MS).

METHODS

HbA2 levels were measured in 146 MS patients with high performance liquid chromatography and association with MS Severity Scores (MSSS) were determined. HbA2 associations with blood count parameters were also studied using blood counts evaluated on the same day of high performance liquid chromatography sampling. Routine biochemical parameters were also determined to rule out elusively influential factors, such as anemia and thyroid disorders.

RESULTS

HbA2 levels negatively correlated with MSSS (Spearman correlation, R: -0.186, P=0.025). Exclusion of confounding factors with a generalized linear model revealed an even stronger negative correlation between HbA2 and MSSS (P<0.001). HbA2 positively correlated with red blood cells (RBCs) (R=0.350, P<0.001) and in turn, RBCs negatively correlated with MSSS (R=-0.180, P=0.031). Average HbA2 levels were highest among patients treated with interferon β1a.

CONCLUSION

RBC fragility is increased in MS, and recent data suggest that circulating free Hb contributes to neural injury in MS. HbA2 and its oxidative denaturation product hemichrome A2 enhance RBC membrane stability to a greater extent than do major HbA or hemichrome A. Reductions in ischemic cerebrovascular vascular events are reported in β-thalassemia carriers and HbA2 levels are considerably higher in this population. Episodic declines of cerebral blood flow were shown in bipolar disorder, and we have recently shown a protective role of HbA2 against postpartum episodes in females with bipolar disorder. HbA2's erythroprotective functions may reduce free Hb and long-term neural injury in MS.

Association of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Beta Thalassaemia Trait- A Case Report

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a multisystem chronic inflammatory disease of autoimmune aetiology. It has a predilection for female gender and presence of photosensitive rash over the sun exposed area gives a clue to the diagnosis. Diagnosis in a male patient with atypical manifestations is unusual and difficult. A 25-year-old male presented with fever, fatigue, vomiting, abdominal pain and loss of weight. He had sustained injury on his right arm following which he developed abscess at the trauma site and severe anaemia. Further evaluation revealed pancytopenia and peritonitis. Though peritonitis is rare in SLE, it was considered in the differential diagnosis after ruling out bacterial and tubercular peritonitis. Positive anti-dsDNA and antiSm antibodies confirmed the diagnosis. While evaluating for microcytic anaemia it was found that iron studies were normal and A2 fraction was raised in haemoglobin electrophoresis. The symptoms and laboratory parameters improved remarkably with steroid therapy. Beta thalassaemia trait is rare in patients with SLE, but when they co-exist the manifestations can be severe. High degree of suspicion is required to diagnose SLE in male patients in absence of typical photosensitive rash. Beta thalassaemia trait often does not require any treatment except genetic counseling. However empirical treatment with iron should be avoided.

Candidate SNP Markers of Gender-Biased Autoimmune Complications of Monogenic Diseases Are Predicted by a Significant Change in the Affinity of TATA-Binding Protein for Human Gene Promoters

Some variations of human genome [for example, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)] are markers of hereditary diseases and drug responses. Analysis of them can help to improve treatment. Computer-based analysis of millions of SNPs in the 1000 Genomes project makes a search for SNP markers more targeted. Here, we combined two computer-based approaches: DNA sequence analysis and keyword search in databases. In the binding sites for TATA-binding protein (TBP) in human gene promoters, we found candidate SNP markers of gender-biased autoimmune diseases, including rs1143627 [cachexia in rheumatoid arthritis (double prevalence among women)]; rs11557611 [demyelinating diseases (thrice more prevalent among young white women than among non-white individuals)]; rs17231520 and rs569033466 [both: atherosclerosis comorbid with related diseases (double prevalence among women)]; rs563763767 [Hughes syndrome-related thrombosis (lethal during pregnancy)]; rs2814778 [autoimmune diseases (excluding multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis) underlying hypergammaglobulinemia in women]; rs72661131 and rs562962093 (both: preterm delivery in pregnant diabetic women); and rs35518301, rs34166473, rs34500389, rs33981098, rs33980857, rs397509430, rs34598529, rs33931746, rs281864525, and rs63750953 (all: autoimmune diseases underlying hypergammaglobulinemia in women). Validation of these predicted candidate SNP markers using the clinical standards may advance personalized medicine.

Haemoglobinopathies and the rheumatologist

The haemoglobinopathies are a relatively common, heterogeneous group of inherited conditions that are the result of either a quantitative abnormality (e.g. thalassaemia) or structural [e.g. sickle cell anaemia (SCA)] of the globin part of the haemoglobin molecule. Musculoskeletal (MSK) complications are common in patients with haemoglobinopathies and may affect the whole of the MSK system, in addition to bone, which is the primary site of the disease. Typical MSK complications include painful vaso-occlusive disease and osteomyelitis in SCA and reduced BMD in thalassaemia. Patients may also develop a number of related (e.g. gout) or unrelated rheumatic diseases (e.g. inflammatory arthritis and autoimmune CTDs). Treatment of MSK conditions in patients with haemoglobinopathies may be challenging (e.g. bone marrow suppression from disease-modifying agents) and in particular in SCA, steroid therapy (by any route) may precipitate potentially severe vaso-occlusive complications. Rheumatologists need to be aware of the range of MSK complications, treatment challenges and the need for such patients to be managed as part of a dedicated multidisciplinary team alongside haematology.