Development and evaluation of buccal films impregnated with selegiline-loaded nanospheres

Design, Development, Evaluation, and In Vivo Performance of Buccal Films Embedded with Paliperidone-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

The therapeutic effectiveness of paliperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia has been limited by its poor oral bioavailability; hence, an alternative route could be appropriate. This study investigates the feasibility of developing a buccal film impregnated with paliperidone-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and assesses the potential to enhance its bioavailability. Box-Behnken-based design optimization of NLCs was performed by examining the particles' physical characteristics. The polymeric film was used to load optimized NLCs, which were then assessed for their pharmaceutical properties, permeability, and pharmacokinetics. The optimization outcomes indicated that selected formulation variables had a considerable (p < 0.05) impact on responses such as particle size, entrapment efficiency, and % drug release. Desired characteristics such as a negative charge, higher entrapment efficiency, and nanoparticles with ideal size distribution were shown by optimized NLC dispersions. The developed film demonstrated excellent physico-mechanical properties, appropriate texture, good drug excipient compatibility (chemically stable formulation), and amorphous drug nature. A sustained Weibull model drug release (p < 0.0005) and superior flux (~5-fold higher, p < 0.005) were seen in NLC-loaded film compared to plain-drug-loaded film. The pharmacokinetics profile in rabbits supports the goal of buccal therapy as evidenced by significantly higher AUC0-12 (p < 0.0001) and greater relative bioavailability (236%) than the control. These results support the conclusion that paliperidone-loaded NLC buccal film has the potential to be an alternate therapy for its effective administration in the treatment of schizophrenia.

The Development of Eletriptan Hydrobromide Immediate Release Buccal Films Using Central Composite Rotatable Design: An In Vivo and In Vitro Approach

The objective is to develop immediate release buccal films of Eletriptan Hydrobromide (EHBR) using hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) E5. The buccal films have the ability to disintegrate rapidly and provide both systemic and local effects. The solvent casting method was employed to prepare the films and the central composite rotatable design (CCRD) model was used for film optimization. All the formulated films were characterized for physicochemical evaluation (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in in-vitro, ex-vivo, and in-vivo drug release. The fabricated films were transparent, colorless, and evenly distributed. The FTIR spectra showed no chemical interaction between the drug and excipients. In in-vitro analysis, the film has the highest% drug release (102.61 ± 1.13), while a maximum of 92.87 ± 0.87% drug was diffused across the cellulose membrane having a pore size of 0.45 µm. In the ex-vivo study, drug diffusion across the goat mucosa was performed and 80.9% of the drug was released in 30 min. In-vivo results depict a mean half-life (t½) of 4.54 ± 0.18 h and a Cmax of 128 ± 0.87 (ng/mL); Tmax was achieved in 1 h. Furthermore, instability and histopathological studies buccal films were proven to be safe and act as an effective dosage form. In a nutshell, optimized and safe instant release EHBR buccal films were prepared that have the tendency to provide effect effectively.

Recent Advancements and Patents on Buccal Drug Delivery Systems: A Comprehensive Review

The major requirement for a dosage form to be successful is its ability to penetrate the site of application and the bioavailability of the drug released from the dosage form. The buccal drug delivery is an influential route to deliver the drug into the body. Here, in this context, various novel approaches that include lipoidal carriers like ethosomes, transferosomes, niosomes etc. and electrospun nanofibers are discussed, with respect to buccal drug delivery. These carriers can be easily incorporated into buccal dosage forms like patches and gels that are responsible for increased permeation across the buccal epithelium. The in vivo methods of evaluation on animal models are conscribed here. The novel biocarriers of lipoidal and non-lipoidal nature can be utilized by loading the drug into them, which are helpful in preventing drug degradation and other drawbacks as compared to conventional formulations. The globally patented buccal formulations give us a wide context in literature about the patents filed and granted in the recent years. When it comes to patient compliance, age is an issue, which is also solved by the buccal route. The pediatric buccal formulations are researched for the customization to be delivered to children. Diseases like mouth ulcers, oral cancer, Parkinson's disease, aphthous stomatitis etc. have been successfully treated through the buccal route, which infers that the buccal drug delivery system is an effective and emerging area for formulation and development in the field of pharmaceutics.

Understanding the Impact of Multi-factorial Composition on Efficient Loading of the Stable Ketoprofen Nanoparticles on Orodispersible Films Using Box-Behnken Design

The purpose of the present study was to prepare Orodispersible films (ODFs) loaded with ketoprofen nanoparticles (KT-NP). The Box-Behnken design was constructed in developing and optimizing the KTF-NP-ODFs. The effect of independent variables: Soluplus® concentration (X₁, stabilizer), Tween 80 concentration (X₂, surfactant), and KTF concentration (X₃, drug) were studied on the dependent variables: particle size (PS, Y₁), zeta potential (ZP, Y₂), and the polydispersity index (PDI, Y₃) of the NPs, as well as on the tensile strength (TS, Y₄) and permeability coefficient (PC, Y₅) of the KTF-NP-ODFs. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC E15) and polyethylene glycol (PEG 400) were used as the film former polymer and plasticizer, respectively, and their concentrations were kept constant for all formulations. KTF-NPs were prepared by antisolvent precipitation technology. This was followed by the addition of HPMC E15 and PEG 400 to prepare the ODFs using the solvent-casting method. The PS, PDI, and ZP for all the formulations were found in the range of 94 nm to 350 nm, 0.09 to 0.438, and -21.83 mV to -8.03 mV, respectively. The TS and PC of the prepared KTF-NP-ODFs were found between 1.21 MPa to 3.93 MPa and 3.12 × 10^-4 cm/h to 34.23 × 10^-4 cm/h, respectively. The amorphous nature of the KTF-NP in the ODFs was confirmed by the absence of characteristic crystalline peaks and endothermic events of KTF in X-ray diffraction (XRD) and modulated differential scanning calorimetry (mDSC), respectively. The optimized formulation showed ̴ 4 times higher permeability as compared to the pure KTF. In addition, the dissolution of pure KTF and the optimized KTF-NP-ODF in pH 1.2 at the end of 60 min was found to be ̴ 30% and ̴ 95%, respectively. Conclusively, KTF-NP-ODFs can be a promising drug delivery system to counter the issues related to dysphagia and bypass the common side effects, such as the gastric irritation associated with NSAIDs like KTF.

Development and Optimization of Asenapine Sublingual Film Using QbD Approach

Asenapine, an atypical antipsychotic agent, has been approved for the acute and maintenance treatment of schizophrenia and manic episodes of bipolar disorder. However, the extensive hepatic metabolism limits its oral bioavailability. Therefore, the objective of the current investigation was to develop sublingual film containing asenapine to enhance the therapeutic efficacy. Sublingual films containing asenapine were fabricated using polyethylene oxide and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose by solvent casting method. Design of experiment was used as a statistical tool to optimize the proportion of the film-forming polymers in order to establish the critical quality attributes of the drug formulation. The process was studied in detail by assessing risk of each step as well as parameters and material attributes to reduce the risk to a minimum. A control strategy was defined to ensure manufacture of films according to the target product profile by evaluation of intermediate quality attributes at the end of each process step. Results of optimized formulations showed rapid disintegration, adequate folding endurance, good percentage elongation, tensile strength, and viscosity. Besides, the results from the in vitro dissolution/ex vivo permeation studies showed rapid dissolution (100% in 6 min) and higher asenapine permeation (~ 80% in 90 min) through the sublingual epithelium. In vivo study indicates greater asenapine absorption (31.18 ± 5.01% of administered dose) within 5 min and was comparable with marketed formulation. In summary, the designing plan to develop asenapine formulation was successfully achieved with desired characteristics of the delivery tool for sublingual administration.

An Updated Overview of the Emerging Role of Patch and Film-Based Buccal Delivery Systems

Buccal mucosal membrane offers an attractive drug-delivery route to enhance both systemic and local therapy. This review discusses the benefits and drawbacks of buccal drug delivery, anatomical and physiological aspects of oral mucosa, and various in vitro techniques frequently used for examining buccal drug-delivery systems. The role of mucoadhesive polymers, penetration enhancers, and enzyme inhibitors to circumvent the formulation challenges particularly due to salivary renovation cycle, masticatory effect, and limited absorption area are summarized. Biocompatible mucoadhesive films and patches are favored dosage forms for buccal administration because of flexibility, comfort, lightness, acceptability, capacity to withstand mechanical stress, and customized size. Preparation methods, scale-up process and manufacturing of buccal films are briefed. Ongoing and completed clinical trials of buccal film formulations designed for systemic delivery are tabulated. Polymeric or lipid nanocarriers incorporated in buccal film to resolve potential formulation and drug-delivery issues are reviewed. Vaccine-enabled buccal films have the potential ability to produce both antibodies mediated and cell mediated immunity. Advent of novel 3D printing technologies with built-in flexibility would allow multiple drug combinations as well as compartmentalization to separate incompatible drugs. Exploring new functional excipients with potential capacity for permeation enhancement of particularly large-molecular-weight hydrophilic drugs and unstable proteins, oligonucleotides are the need of the hour for rapid advancement in the exciting field of buccal drug delivery.

Nanoparticles in Dentistry: A Comprehensive Review

In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) have been receiving more attention in dentistry. Their advantageous physicochemical and biological properties can improve the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of numerous oral diseases, including dental caries, periodontal diseases, pulp and periapical lesions, oral candidiasis, denture stomatitis, hyposalivation, and head, neck, and oral cancer. NPs can also enhance the mechanical and microbiological properties of dental prostheses and implants and can be used to improve drug delivery through the oral mucosa. This paper reviewed studies from 2015 to 2020 and summarized the potential applications of different types of NPs in the many fields of dentistry.

Development of Mucoadhesive Buccal Film for Rizatriptan: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

The reduced therapeutic efficacy of rizatriptan in migraine treatment is primarily due to low oral bioavailability and extensive first pass metabolism. The purpose of this investigation was to optimize the thin mucoadhesive buccal film of rizatriptan and assess the practicability of its development as a potential substitute for conventional migraine treatment. Buccal films (FR1-FR10) were fabricated by a conventional solvent casting method utilizing a combination of polymers (Proloc, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and Eudragit RS 100). Drug-loaded buccal films (F1-F4) were examined for mechanical, mucoadhesive, swelling and release characteristics. In vivo pharmacokinetics parameters of selected buccal film (F1) in rabbits were compared to oral administration. Films F1-F4 displayed optimal physicomechanical properties including mucoadhesive strength, which can prolong the buccal residence time. A biphasic, complete and higher drug release was seen in films F1 and F4, which followed Weibull model kinetics. The optimized film, F1, exhibited significantly higher (p < 0.005) rizatriptan buccal flux (71.94 ± 8.26 µg/cm²/h) with a short lag time. Film features suggested the drug particles were in an amorphous form, compatible with the polymers used and had an appropriate surface morphology suitable for buccal application. Pharmacokinetic data indicated a significantly higher rizatriptan plasma level (p < 0.005) and C_max (p < 0.0001) upon buccal film application as compared to oral solution. The observed AUC_0-12h (994.86 ± 95.79 ng.h/mL) in buccal treatment was two-fold higher (p < 0.0001) than the control, and the relative bioavailability judged was 245%. This investigation demonstrates the prospective of buccal films as a viable and alternative approach for effective rizatriptan delivery.

Biomimetic clotrimazole-loaded PLGA films with enhanced adhesiveness for controlled drug release

Biomimetic adhesive surfaces have a number of potential applications in the pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. Fabrication techniques must be adapted to biocompatible and biodegradable materials required for controlled drug release applications. In this study biomimetic adhesive poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) films loaded with different concentrations of clotrimazole (CTZ) were prepared without combining other adhesive excipients as a controlled release system for potential local oral drug delivery. The films were fully characterized from morphological point of view, and CTZ-loaded biomimetic films exhibited adequate surface pH values, high drug encapsulation efficiency, and loading content. The adhesion strength of the obtained films was significantly higher compared to a flat film reference under different contact conditions. Thermal analysis indicated a decrease of drug crystallinity upon incorporation into PLGA films. The in vitro release of CTZ from PLGA biomimetic films was tested in simulated saliva, and it exhibited an initial burst release, accompanied by a sustained release phase over 10 days. Finally, the mucoadhesive properties of the obtained films was studied using agar/mucin plate as a representative mucosal substrate, and the results demonstrated superior mucoadhesion potential of CTZ-loaded biomimetic film in comparison to its flat counterpart. Having demonstrated the ability to load CTZ into PLGA biomimetic films with enhanced adhesion capacity, the potential use in local oral drug delivery applications warrants further in vitro and in vivo investigations.

Formulation and Optimization of Sodium Alginate Polymer Film as a Buccal Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery System Containing Cetirizine Dihydrochloride

Currently, pharmaceutical companies are working on innovative methods, processes and products. Oral mucoadhesive systems, such as tablets, gels, and polymer films, are among these possible products. Oral mucoadhesive systems possess many advantages, including the possibility to be applied in swallowing problems. The present study focused on formulating buccal mucoadhesive polymer films and investigating the physical and physical–chemical properties of films. Sodium alginate (SA) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) were used as film-forming agents, glycerol (GLY) was added as a plasticizer, and cetirizine dihydrochloride (CTZ) was used as an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). The polymer films were prepared at room temperature with the solvent casting method by mixed two-level and three-level factorial designs. The thickness, tensile strength (hardness), mucoadhesivity, surface free energy (SFE), FTIR, and Raman spectra, as well as the dissolution of the prepared films, were investigated. The investigations showed that GLY can reduce the mucoadhesivity of films, and CTZ can increase the tensile strength of films. The distribution of CTZ proved to be homogeneous in the films. The API could dissolve completely from all the films. We can conclude that polymer films with 1% and 3% GLY concentrations are appropriate to be formulated for application on the buccal mucosa as a drug delivery system.

Importance of Nanoparticles for the Delivery of Antiparkinsonian Drugs

Parkinson's disease (PD) affects around ten million people worldwide and is considered the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer's disease. In addition, there is a higher risk incidence in the elderly population. The main PD hallmarks include the loss of dopaminergic neurons and the development of Lewy bodies. Unfortunately, motor symptoms only start to appear when around 50-70% of dopaminergic neurons have already been lost. This particularly poses a huge challenge for early diagnosis and therapeutic effectiveness. Actually, pharmaceutical therapy is able to relief motor symptoms, but as the disease progresses motor complications and severe side-effects start to appear. In this review, we explore the research conducted so far in order to repurpose drugs for PD with the use of nanodelivery systems, alternative administration routes, and nanotheranostics. Overall, studies have demonstrated great potential for these nanosystems to target the brain, improve drug pharmacokinetic profile, and decrease side-effects.

Experimental design, formulation and in vivo evaluation of a novel topical in situ gel system to treat ocular infections

In situ gels have been extensively explored as ocular drug delivery system to enhance bioavailability and efficacy. The objective of present study was to design, formulate and evaluate ion-activated in situ gel to enhance the ocular penetration and therapeutic performance of moxifloxacin in ophthalmic delivery. A simplex lattice design was utilized to examine the effect of various factors on experimental outcomes of the in situ gel system. The influence of polymers (independent variables) such as gellan gum (X₁), sodium alginate (X₂), and HPMC (X₃) on gel strength, adhesive force, viscosity and drug release after 10 h (Q₁₀) were assessed. Selected formulation (MH7) was studied for ex vivo permeation, in vivo irritation and pharmacokinetics in rabbits. Data revealed that increase in concentration of polymers led to higher gel strength, adhesive force and viscosity, however, decreases the drug release. MH7 exhibited all physicochemical properties within acceptable limits and was stable for 6 months. Release profile of moxifloxacin from MH7 was comparable to the check point batches and followed Korsmeyer-Peppas matrix diffusion-controlled mechanism. Ocular irritation study signifies that selected formulation is safe and non-irritant for ophthalmic administration. In vivo pharmacokinetics data indicates significant improvement of moxifloxacin bioavailability (p < 0.0001) from MH7, as evidenced by higher C_max (727 ± 56 ng/ml) and greater AUC (2881 ± 108 ng h/ml), when compared with commercial eye drops (C_max; 503 ± 85 ng/ml and AUC; 978 ± 86 ng h/ml). In conclusion, developed in situ gel system (MH7) could offers a more effective and extended ophthalmic therapy of moxifloxacin in ocular infections when compared to conventional eye drops.

Emerging Role of Hydrogels in Drug Delivery Systems, Tissue Engineering and Wound Management

The popularity of hydrogels as biomaterials lies in their tunable physical properties, ability to encapsulate small molecules and macromolecular drugs, water holding capacity, flexibility, and controllable degradability. Functionalization strategies to overcome the deficiencies of conventional hydrogels and expand the role of advanced hydrogels such as DNA hydrogels are extensively discussed in this review. Different types of cross-linking techniques, materials utilized, procedures, advantages, and disadvantages covering hydrogels are tabulated. The application of hydrogels, particularly in buccal, oral, vaginal, and transdermal drug delivery systems, are described. The review also focuses on composite hydrogels with enhanced properties that are being developed to meet the diverse demand of wound dressing materials. The unique advantages of hydrogel nanoparticles in targeted and intracellular delivery of various therapeutic agents are explained. Furthermore, different types of hydrogel-based materials utilized for tissue engineering applications and fabrication of contact lens are discussed. The article also provides an overview of selected examples of commercial products launched particularly in the area of oral and ocular drug delivery systems and wound dressing materials. Hydrogels can be prepared with a wide variety of properties, achieving biostable, bioresorbable, and biodegradable polymer matrices, whose mechanical properties and degree of swelling are tailored with a specific application. These unique features give them a promising future in the fields of drug delivery systems and applied biomedicine.

Development and characterization of sublingual films for enhanced bioavailability of selegiline hydrochloride

Low oral bioavailability of selegiline hydrochloride (SH) is primarily due to extensive first-pass metabolism and hence the need for an alternative pathway of administration. Herein, we report the development of sublingual SH films. The films were formulated with varying polymer composition (F1-F6) and evaluated for physicochemical characteristics, in vitro drug release and ex vivo permeation studies. The film F2 demonstrated satisfactory weight (10.60 mg), folding endurance (>200), drug content (11.44 mg/cm²), disintegration time (68 s), mucoadhesive strength (47.7 N/cm²), and controlled release for 30 min. The permeation studies exhibited a higher ex vivo sublingual flux than that of the plain drug. This study concludes that the SH film can provide a potential opportunity for sublingual drug delivery.

The Beneficial Effect of Boswellic Acid on Bone Metabolism and Possible Mechanisms of Action in Experimental Osteoporosis

Estrogen is instrumental in the pathological process of osteoporosis because a deficiency of this hormone increases the release of bone-resorbing cytokines. Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA), a constituent from Boswellia serrata, has an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) expression, which leads to a decline in receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) ligand, and consequently, a reduction in osteoclast activity. Hence, AKBA may be beneficial against bone loss during osteoporosis. Therefore, the current study intended to evaluate the beneficial effects of AKBA in ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis and to investigate its mechanism of action. Sham-operation or ovariectomy female Sprague Dawley rats were used for evaluating the antiosteoporotic effect of AKBA in this study. AKBA (35 mg/kg, p.o.) and estradiol (0.05 mg/kg, i.m.) were administered for 42 days. At the end of the experiment, body and uterus weights, serum and urine calcium and phosphorus, serum alkaline phosphatase, and urinary creatinine levels, besides serum levels of NF-κB and TNF-α were determined. Weight, length, thickness, hardness, calcium content, as well as the bone mineral density of femur bone and lumbar vertebra were measured. A histopathological examination was also carried out. AKBA ameliorated all tested parameters and restored a normal histological structure. Thus, AKBA showed good antiosteoporotic activity, which may be mediated through its suppression of the NF-κB-induced TNF-α signaling pathway.

Development of Metronidazole Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles Using QbD Approach-A Novel and Potential Antibacterial Formulation

The aim of this study was to design, optimize, and develop metronidazole (Met) loaded nanoparticles (MetNp) by employing quality-based design (QbD) as well as a risk assessment methodology. A fractional factorial design was used by selecting five independent variables viz., chitosan concentration, tripolyphosphate concentration, and acetic acid concentration as material attributes, stirring speed, and stirring time as process parameters, whereby their influence on two dependent variables such as particle size (PS) and %entrapment efficiency (%EE) was studied. MetNp were synthesized by employing an ionic-gelation technique and optimized formula obtained from the QbD design study. PS and %EE studies revealed the formation of MetNp with 558.06 ± 2.52 nm and 59.07 ± 2.15%, respectively. Furthermore, a Met release study in various simulated gastro-intestinal media suggested pH-triggered (pH > 7.0) and sustained release profile of Met from Eudragit S100 enteric-coated MetNp capsule (MetNp cap). Moreover, the stability investigation of formulations confirmed good stability with respect to their PS and residual drug content (RDC) at different temperature conditions. In conclusion, the QbD method was effectively utilized in the development of MetNp and enteric-coated MetNp cap depicting their potential to release Met through MetNp cap only in the colon region and can be utilized for the treatment of amoebiasis in the colon.

Development and Optimization of Naringenin-Loaded Chitosan-Coated Nanoemulsion for Topical Therapy in Wound Healing

The potential role of naringenin (NAR), a natural flavonoid, in the treatment of chronic wound has prompted the present research to deliver the drug in nanoemulsion (NE) form, where synergistic role of chitosan was achieved through development of chitosan-coated NAR NE (CNNE). The NE consisted of Capryol 90, Tween 20 and Transcutol P, which was fabricated by low-energy emulsification method to encapsulate NAR within the oil core. The optimization of the formulated NEs was performed using Box-Behnken statistical design to obtain crucial variable parameters that influence globule size, size distribution and surface charge. Finally, the optimized formulation was coated with different concentrations of chitosan and subsequently characterized in vitro. The size of the CNNE was found to be increased when the drug-loaded formulation was coated with chitosan. Controlled release characteristics depicted 67-81% release of NAR from the CNNE, compared to 89% from the NE formulation. Cytotoxicity study of the formulation was performed in vitro using fibroblast cell line (NIH-3T3), where no inhibition in proliferation of the cells was observed with CNNE. Finally, the wound healing potential of the CNNE was evaluated in an abrasion-created wound model in experimental animals where the animals were treated and compared histologically at 0 and 14 days. Significant improvement in construction of the abrasion wound was observed when the animals were treated with formulated CNNE, whereas stimulation of skin regeneration was depicted in the histological examination. Therefore, it could be summarized that the chitosan coating of the developed NAR NE is a potential platform to accelerate healing of wounds.

Vesicular Emulgel Based System for Transdermal Delivery of Insulin: Factorial Design and in Vivo Evaluation

Transdermal delivery of insulin is a great challenge due to its poor permeability through the skin. The aim of the current investigation was to evaluate the prospective of insulin loaded niosome emulgel as a noninvasive delivery system for its transdermal therapy. A 23 full-factorial design was used to optimize the insulin niosome emulgel by assessing the effect of independent variables (concentration of paraffin oil, Tween 80 and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) on dependent variables (in vitro release, viscosity and in vitro permeation). The physical characteristics of the prepared formulations were carried out by determining viscosity, particle size, entrapment efficiency, drug loading, drug release and kinetics. In vitro permeation studies were carried out using rat skin membrane. Hypoglycemic activity of prepared formulations was assessed in diabetic-induced rats. It was observed that the independent variables influenced the dependent variables. A significant difference (p < 0.05) in viscosity was noticed between the prepared gels, which in turn influenced the insulin release. The order of permeation is: insulin niosome emulgel > insulin niosome gel > insulin emulgel > insulin gel > insulin niosomes > insulin solution. The enhancement in transdermal flux in insulin niosome emulgel was 10-fold higher than the control (insulin solution). In vivo data significantly demonstrated reduction (p < 0.05) of plasma glucose level (at six hours) by insulin niosome emulgel than other formulations tested. The results suggest that the developed insulin niosome emulgel could be an efficient carrier for the transdermal delivery of insulin.

HPMC- and PLGA-Based Nanoparticles for the Mucoadhesive Delivery of Sitagliptin: Optimization and In Vivo Evaluation in Rats

Mucoadhesive nanoparticles represent a potential drug delivery strategy to enhance the therapeutic efficacy in oral therapy. This study assessed the prospective of developing HPMC- and PLGA-based nanoparticles using a nanospray drier as a mucoadhesive extended release drug delivery system for sitagliptin and evaluated their potential in an animal model. Nanoparticles were prepared using a Buchi^® B-90 nanospray drier. Optimization of particle size was performed using response surface methodology by examining the influence of spray-drying process variables (inlet temperature, feed flow, and polymer concentration) on the particle size. The prepared nanoparticles were characterized for various physicochemical characteristics (yield, drug content, morphology, particle size, thermal, and crystallographic properties) and assessed for drug release, stability, and mucoadhesive efficacy by ex vivo and in vivo studies in rats. A linear model was suggested by the design of the experiments to be the best fit for the generated design and values. The yield was 77 ± 4%, and the drug content was 90.5 ± 3.5%. Prepared nanoparticles showed an average particle size of 448.8 nm, with a narrow particle size distribution, and were wrinkled. Thermal and crystallographic characteristics showed that the drug present in the nanoparticles is in amorphous dispersion. Nanoparticles exhibited a biphasic drug release with an initial rapid release (24.9 ± 2.7% at 30 min) and a prolonged release (98.9 ± 1.8% up to 12 h). The ex vivo mucoadhesive studies confirmed the adherence of nanoparticles in stomach mucosa for a long period. Histopathological assessment showed that the formulation is safe for oral drug delivery. Nanoparticles showed a significantly higher (p < 0.05) amount of sitagliptin retention in the GIT (gastrointestinal tract) as compared to control. The data observed in this study indicate that the prepared mucoadhesive nanoparticles can be an effective alternative delivery system for the oral therapy of sitagliptin.

Development of Asialoglycoprotein Receptor-Targeted Nanoparticles for Selective Delivery of Gemcitabine to Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Selective targeting of anticancer drugs to the tumor site is beneficial in the pharmacotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This study evaluated the prospective of galactosylated chitosan nanoparticles as a liver-specific carrier to improve the therapeutic efficacy of gemcitabine in HCC by targeting asialoglycoprotein receptors expressed on hepatocytes. Nanoparticles were formulated (G1–G5) by an ionic gelation method and evaluated for various physicochemical characteristics. Targeting efficacy of formulation G4 was evaluated in rats. Physicochemical characteristics exhibited by nanoparticles were optimal for administering and targeting gemcitabine effectively to the liver. The biphasic release behavior observed with G4 can provide higher drug concentration and extend the pharmacotherapy in the liver target site. Rapid plasma clearance of gemcitabine (70% in 30 min) from G4 was noticed in rats with HCC as compared to pure drug (p < 0.05). Higher uptake of gemcitabine predominantly by HCC (64% of administered dose; p < 0.0001) demonstrated excellent liver targeting by G4, while mitigating systemic toxicity. Morphological, biochemical, and histopathological examination as well as blood levels of the tumor marker, alpha-fetoprotein, in rats confirmed the curative effect of G4. In conclusion, this study demonstrated site-specific delivery and enhanced in vivo anti-HCC efficacy of gemcitabine by G4, which could function as promising carrier in hepatoma.

Mucoadhesive buccal film of almotriptan improved therapeutic delivery in rabbit model

Administration of almotriptan as an oral therapy is largely limited because of poor aqueous solubility and rather low bioavailability. The aim of present investigation was to formulate oral mucoadhesive film of almotriptan to improve the drug delivery and desired therapeutic effects. Placebo films (F1-F8) were prepared by varying the concentrations of Proloc 15 (7.5-15% w/v) and Eudragit RL 100/RS 100 (15-30% w/v) polymers. Physicomechanical and pharmaceutical characteristics of drug loaded films (FA1-FA4) were examined. Selected FA4 film was evaluated in vivo by assessing the pharmacokinetic profile and compared with oral therapy in rabbits. FA1-FA4 films exhibited excellent physicomechanical properties and rapid hydration. A biphasic and considerably greater drug release (p < 0.05) was observed in FA3 and FA4 films contain higher amount of hydrophilic polymer. The rate of permeation of almotriptan was found to be significantly higher in FA4 than FA3 film (p < 0.005). Fourier transform infrared spectral scan indicates no incompatibility exists between the drug and polymers used. Differential scanning calorimetry thermogram represents the evidence of almotriptan amorphization and molecular dispersion of it in the film. Scanning electron microscopy images shows that FA4 possess good morphological features and hence suitable for use in the buccal application. In vivo data demonstrated rapid and efficient absorption (p < 0.005) of almotriptan with greater AUC_0-12 (>2 folds, p < 0.0001) by FA4 film as compared to oral (control). In general, the data established the potential of FA4 film to improve the therapeutic delivery of almotriptan and offers a promising option in migraine therapy.

Advances in Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Approaches for Sublingual and Buccal Administration

The sublingual and buccal routes of administration have significant advantages for both local and systemic drug delivery. They have shown to be an effective alternative to the traditional oral route, especially when fast onset of action is required. Drugs can be rapidly and directly absorbed into the systemic circulation via venous drainage to the superior vena cava. Therefore, they are useful for drugs that undergo high hepatic clearance or degradation in the gastrointestinal tract, and for patients that have swallowing difficulties. Drugs administered via the sublingual and buccal routes are traditionally formulated as solid dosage forms (e.g., tablets, wafers, films, and patches), liquid dosage forms (e.g., sprays and drops), and semi-solid dosage forms (e.g., gels). Conventional dosage forms are commonly affected by physiological factors, which can reduce the contact of the formulation with the mucosa and lead to unpredictable drug absorption. There have been a number of advances in formulation development to improve the retention and absorption of drugs in the buccal and sublingual regions. This review will focus on the physiological aspects that influence buccal and sublingual drug delivery and the advances in nanoparticulate drug delivery approaches for sublingual and buccal administration. The clinical development pipeline with formulations approved and in clinical trials will also be addressed.

Pharmacokinetic Aspects of Nanoparticle-in-Matrix Drug Delivery Systems for Oral/Buccal Delivery

Oral route maintains its predominance among the ones used for drug delivery, especially when medicines are self-administered. If the dosage form is solid, therapy gains in dose precision and drug stability. Yet, some active pharmaceutical substances do not present the required solubility, permeability, or release profile for incorporation into traditional matrices. The combination of nanostructured drugs (nanoparticle [NP]) with these matrices is a new and little-explored alternative, which could bring several benefits. Therefore, this review focused on combined delivery systems based on nanostructures to administer drugs by the oral cavity, intended for buccal, sublingual, gastric, or intestinal absorption. We analyzed published NP-in-matrix systems and compared main formulation characteristics, pharmacokinetics, release profiles, and physicochemical stability improvements. The reported formulations are mainly semisolid or solid polymers, with polymeric or lipid NPs and one active pharmaceutical ingredient. Regarding drug specifics, most of them are poorly permeable or greatly metabolized. The few studies with pharmacokinetics showed increased drug bioavailability and, sometimes, a controlled release rate. From our knowledge, the gathered data make up the first focused review of these trendy systems, which we believe will help to gain scientific deepness and future advancements in the field.

Nanoemulsion Based Vehicle for Effective Ocular Delivery of Moxifloxacin Using Experimental Design and Pharmacokinetic Study in Rabbits

Nanoemulsion is one of the potential drug delivery strategies used in topical ocular therapy. The purpose of this study was to design and optimize a nanoemulsion-based system to improve therapeutic efficacy of moxifloxacin in ophthalmic delivery. Moxifloxacin nanoemulsions were prepared by testing their solubility in oil, surfactants, and cosurfactants. A pseudoternary phase diagram was constructed by titration technique and nanoemulsions were obtained with four component mixtures of Tween 80, Soluphor^® P, ethyl oleate and water. An experiment with simplex lattice design was conducted to assess the influence of formulation parameters in seven nanoemulsion formulations (MM1–MM7) containing moxifloxacin. Physicochemical characteristics and in vitro release of MM1–MM7 were examined and optimized formulation (MM3) was further evaluated for ex vivo permeation, antimicrobial activity, ocular irritation and stability. Drug pharmacokinetics in rabbit aqueous humor was assessed for MM3 and compared with conventional commercial eye drop formulation (control). MM3 exhibited complete drug release in 3 h by Higuchi diffusion controlled mechanism. Corneal steady state flux of MM3 (~32.01 µg/cm²/h) and control (~31.53 µg/cm²/h) were comparable. Ocular irritation study indicated good tolerance of MM3 and its safety for ophthalmic use. No significant changes were observed in the physicochemical properties of MM3 when stored in the refrigerator for 3 months. The greater aqueous humor concentration (C_max; 555.73 ± 133.34 ng/mL) and delayed T_max value (2 h) observed in MM3 suggest a reduced dosing frequency and increased therapeutic efficacy relative to control. The area under the aqueous humor concentration versus time curve (AUC_{0–8 h}) of MM3 (1859.76 ± 424.51 ng·h/mL) was ~2 fold higher (p < 0.0005) than the control, suggesting a significant improvement in aqueous humor bioavailability. Our findings suggest that optimized nanoemulsion (MM3) enhanced the therapeutic effect of moxifloxacin and can therefore be used as a safe and effective delivery vehicle for ophthalmic therapy.

An overview of polymeric dosage forms in buccal drug delivery: State of art, design of formulations and their in vivo performance evaluation

Owing to the ease of the administration, the oral cavity is an attractive site for the delivery of drugs. The main difficulty for administration via the buccal route is an effective physiological removal mechanism of the oral cavity that takes way the formulation from the buccal site and decreases the bioavailability of drugs. The use of mucoadhesive polymers in buccal drug delivery shows assessing buccal drug permeation and absorption, however some studies bring an in vivo performance. This review points to the use of polymers in the manufacture of drug delivery systems (hydrogels, films and tablets) and shows the results of their in vivo performance tests.

Brain targeted delivery of mucoadhesive thermosensitive nasal gel of selegiline hydrochloride for treatment of Parkinson's disease

Selegiline hydrochloride (SL), is an anti-Parkinson's agent, has low-oral bioavailability due to its high first pass metabolism and scarce oral absorption. In the present study, SL mucoadhesive nasal thermosensitive gel (SNT-gel) was prepared to enhance the bioavailability and subsequently, its concentration in the brain. The SNT-gel was prepared using Poloxamer 407-Chitosan combination and optimised formulation was further evaluated for physicochemical parameters. The comparative pharmacodynamic studies including behavioural studies, biochemical testing and histopathology of the brain was carried out in rats for SNT-gel, SL-nasal solution and SL Marketed Tablets. The optimised SNT-gel formulation (SNT-V) revealed sol-gel transition at 33-34°C. In-vitro diffusion study of SNT-V showed 102.37 ± 2.1% diffusion at 12 h which reduced to 89.64 ± 1.2% in Ex-vivo diffusion. Comparative results of behavioural studies indicated an improved score of photoactometer and reduced motor deficit (catalepsy score) in SNT-gel treatment group as compared with other groups. Similarly, a significant increase in brain dopamine, reduction in monoamine oxidase B level, increase in catalase activity and level of reduced glutathione upon treatment with SNT-gel indicated its effectiveness which was also supported by histopathology results. Therefore, nasal thermosensitive gel holds better potential for brain targeting in Parkinson's disease over the conventional nasal or oral formulations.