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Takabayashi S, Iijima K, Tsujimura M, Aoshima T, Takagi H, Aoto K, Sato M. Successful i-GONAD in Mice at Early Zygote Stage through In Vivo Electroporation Three Min after Intraoviductal Instillation of CRISPR-Ribonucleoprotein. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810678. [PMID: 36142589 PMCID: PMC9506528 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Improved genome editing via oviductal nucleic acids delivery (i-GONAD) is a new technology enabling in situ genome editing of mammalian zygotes exiting the oviductal lumen, which is now available in mice, rats, and hamsters. In this method, CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing reagents are delivered directly to the oviducts of pregnant animals (corresponding to late zygote stage). After intraoviductal instillation, electric shock to the entire oviduct was provided with a specialized electroporation (EP) device to drive the genome editing reagents into the zygotes present in the oviductal lumen. i-GONAD toward early zygotes has been recognized as difficult, because they are tightly surrounded by a cumulus cell layer, which often hampers effective transfer of nucleic acids to zygotes. However, in vivo EP three min after intraoviductal instillation of the genome-editing reagents enabled genome editing of early zygotes with an efficiency of 70%, which was in contrast with the rate of 18% when in vivo EP was performed immediately after intraoviductal instillation at Day 0.5 of pregnancy (corresponding to 13:00–13:30 p.m. on the day when vaginal plug was recognized after natural mating). We also found that addition of hyaluronidase, an enzyme capable of removing cumulus cells from a zygote, slightly enhanced the efficiency of genome editing in early zygotes. These findings suggest that cumulus cells surrounding a zygote can be a barrier for efficient generation of genome-edited mouse embryos and indicate that a three-minute interval before in vivo EP is effective for achieving i-GONAD-mediated genome editing at the early zygote stage. These results are particularly beneficial for researchers who want to perform genome editing experiments targeting early zygotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Takabayashi
- Laboratory Animal Facilities & Services, Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-53-435-2001
| | - Kenta Iijima
- Laboratory Animal Facilities & Services, Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan
| | - Masumi Tsujimura
- Laboratory Animal Facilities & Services, Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan
| | - Takuya Aoshima
- Laboratory Animal Facilities & Services, Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan
| | - Hisayoshi Takagi
- Laboratory Animal Facilities & Services, Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan
| | - Kazushi Aoto
- Department of Biochemistry, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sato
- Department of Genome Medicine, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo 157-8535, Japan
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Yang L, Wu X, Zhang N, Shi J, Zhou R, Su Q, Zheng E, Huang S, Xu Z, Hong L, Gu T, Yang J, Yang H, Cai G, Wu Z, Li Z. Knockdown of RLIM inhibits XIST expression and improves developmental competence of cloned male pig embryos. Mol Reprod Dev 2021; 88:228-237. [PMID: 33650239 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.23460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Ectopic expression of Xist on the putative active X chromosome is a primary cause of the low developmental efficiency of cloned mouse and pig embryos. Suppression of abnormal Xist expression via gene knockout or RNA interference (RNAi) can significantly enhance the developmental competence of cloned mouse and pig embryos. RLIM is a Xist expression activator, whereas REX1 is an Xist transcription inhibitor, as RLIM triggers Xist expression by mediating the proteasomal degradation of REX1 to induce imprinted and random X chromosome inactivation in mice. This study aimed to test whether the knockdown of RLIM and overexpression of REX1 can repress aberrant Xist expression and improve the developmental ability of cloned male pig embryos. Results showed that injection of anti-RLIM small interfering RNA significantly decreased Xist messenger RNA abundance, increased REX1 protein level, and enhanced the preimplantation development of cloned male porcine embryos. These positive effects were not observed in cloned male pig embryos injected with REX1 expression plasmid, which might be due to the low expression efficiency of injected REX1 plasmid and/or the short half-life of expressed REX1 protein. The findings from this study indicated that RLIM participated in the ectopic activation of Xist expression in cloned pig embryos by targeting REX1 degradation. Furthermore, this study provided a new method to improve cloned pig embryo development by the inhibition of Xist expression via RNAi of RLIM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liusong Yang
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiao Wu
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Junsong Shi
- Guangdong Wens Pig Breeding Technology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Rong Zhou
- Guangdong Wens Pig Breeding Technology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qiaoyun Su
- Guangdong Wens Pig Breeding Technology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Enqin Zheng
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Sixiu Huang
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zheng Xu
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Linjun Hong
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ting Gu
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jie Yang
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Huaqiang Yang
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Gengyuan Cai
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhenfang Wu
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zicong Li
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Ohtsuka M, Sato M. i-GONAD: A method for generating genome-edited animals without ex vivo handling of embryos. Dev Growth Differ 2019; 61:306-315. [PMID: 31198998 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The recent development of genome editing technologies has enabled the creation of genome-edited animals, with alterations at the desired target locus. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) system is widely used for this purpose because it is simpler and more efficient than other genome editing technologies. The conventional methods for creation of genome-edited animals involve ex vivo handling of embryos (zygotes) for microinjection or in vitro electroporation. However, this process is laborious and time-consuming, and relatively large numbers of animals are used. Furthermore, these methods require specialized skills for handling embryos. In 2015, we reported a novel method for the creation of genome-edited animals without ex vivo handling of embryos. The technology known as Genome-editing via Oviductal Nucleic Acids Delivery (GONAD) involved intraoviductal instillation of genome editing components into a pregnant female and subsequent in vivo electroporation of an entire oviduct. The genome editing components present in the oviductal lumen are transferred to preimplantation embryos in situ for introducing insertion or deletion (indel) mutations at the desired loci. This technology was further improved by optimizing several parameters to develop improved GONAD (i-GONAD) for the efficient generation of mutant or knock-in animals. In this review, we discuss the historical background, potential applications, advantages, and future challenges of GONAD/i-GONAD technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Ohtsuka
- Division of Basic Medical Science and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Tokai University, Kanagawa, Japan.,Center for Matrix Biology and Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Tokai University, Kanagawa, Japan.,The Institute of Medical Sciences, Tokai University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sato
- Section of Gene Expression Regulation, Frontier Science Research Center, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
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Sato M, Ohtsuka M, Nakamura S, Sakurai T, Watanabe S, Gurumurthy CB. In vivo genome editing targeted towards the female reproductive system. Arch Pharm Res 2018; 41:898-910. [PMID: 29974342 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-018-1053-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of sequence specific nucleases such as ZFNs, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9 has revolutionized genome editing. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has particularly emerged as a highly simple and efficient approach towards generating genome-edited animal models of most of the experimental species. The limitation of these novel genome editing tools is that, till date, they depend on traditional pronuclear injection (PI)-based transgenic technologies developed over the last three decades. PI requires expensive micromanipulator systems and the equipment operators must possess a high level of skill. Therefore, since the establishment of PI-based transgenesis, various research groups worldwide have attempted to develop alternative and simple gene delivery methods. However, owing to the failure of chromosomal integration of the transgene, none of these methods gained the level of confidence as that by the PI method in order to be adapted as a routine approach. The recently developed genome editing systems do not require complicated techniques. Therefore, presently, attention is being focused on non-PI-based gene delivery into germ cells for simple and rapid production of genetically engineered animals. For example, a few reports during the previous 1-2 years demonstrated the use of electroporation (EP) in isolated zygotes that helped to overcome the absolute dependency on PI techniques. Recently, another breakthrough technology called genome editing via oviductal nucleic acids delivery (GONAD) that directly delivers nucleic acids into zygotes within the oviducts in situ was developed. This technology completely relieves the bottlenecks of animal transgenesis as it does not require PI and ex vivo handling of embryos. This review discusses in detail the in vivo gene delivery methods targeted towards female reproductive tissues as these methods that have been developed over the past 2-3 decades can now be re-evaluated for their suitability to deliver the CRISPR/Cas9 components to produce transgenic animals. This review also provides an overview of the latest advances in CRISPR-enabled delivery technologies that have caused paradigm shifts in animal transgenesis methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Sato
- Section of Gene Expression Regulation, Frontier Science Research Center, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, 890-8544, Japan.
| | - Masato Ohtsuka
- Division of Basic Medical Science and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Tokai University, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan.,Center for Matrix Biology and Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Tokai University, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan.,The Institute of Medical Sciences, Tokai University, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan
| | - Shingo Nakamura
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, National Defense Medical College Research Institute, Saitama, 359-8513, Japan
| | - Takayuki Sakurai
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, Graduate School of Medicine, Shinshu University, Nagano, 390-8621, Japan.,Basic Research Division for Next-Generation Disease Models and Fundamental Technology, Research Center for Next Generation Medicine, Shinshu University, Nagano, 390-8621, Japan
| | - Satoshi Watanabe
- Animal Genome Research Unit, Division of Animal Science, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Ibaraki, 305-8602, Japan
| | - Channabasavaiah B Gurumurthy
- Mouse Genome Engineering Core Facility, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA.,Developmental Neuroscience, Munro Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
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Tada N, Kanai F, Nakamura E, Lu H, Sato M. Syngenic grafting of a whole juvenile male gonadal tissue into the adult testes confers successful spermatogenesis in mice. ASIAN PACIFIC JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTION 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apjr.2016.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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Sato M, Ohtsuka M, Watanabe S, Gurumurthy CB. Nucleic acids delivery methods for genome editing in zygotes and embryos: the old, the new, and the old-new. Biol Direct 2016; 11:16. [PMID: 27037013 PMCID: PMC4815204 DOI: 10.1186/s13062-016-0115-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In the recent years, sequence-specific nucleases such as ZFNs, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9 have revolutionzed the fields of animal genome editing and transgenesis. However, these new techniques require microinjection to deliver nucleic acids into embryos to generate gene-modified animals. Microinjection is a delicate procedure that requires sophisticated equipment and highly trained and experienced technicians. Though over a dozen alternate approaches for nucleic acid delivery into embryos were attempted during the pre-CRISPR era, none of them became routinely used as microinjection. The addition of CRISPR/Cas9 to the genome editing toolbox has propelled the search for novel delivery approaches that can obviate the need for microinjection. Indeed, some groups have recently developed electroporation-based methods that have the potential to radically change animal transgenesis. This review provides an overview of the old and new delivery methods, and discusses various strategies that were attempted during the last three decades. In addition, several of the methods are re-evaluated with respect to their suitability to deliver genome editing components, particularly CRISPR/Cas9, to embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Sato
- Section of Gene Expression Regulation, Frontier Science Research Center, Kagoshima University, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, Kagoshima, 890-8544 Japan
| | - Masato Ohtsuka
- Division of Basic Molecular Science and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Tokai University, Kanagawa, 259 1193 Japan
| | - Satoshi Watanabe
- Animal Genome Research Unit, Division of Animal Science, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Ibaraki, 305-8602 Japan
| | - Channabasavaiah B. Gurumurthy
- Developmental Neuroscience, Munroe-Meyer Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198 USA
- Mouse Genome Engineering Core Facility, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198 USA
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Gurumurthy CB, Takahashi G, Wada K, Miura H, Sato M, Ohtsuka M. GONAD: A Novel CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing Method that Does Not Require Ex Vivo Handling of Embryos. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN HUMAN GENETICS 2016; 88:15.8.1-15.8.12. [PMID: 26724720 PMCID: PMC4733652 DOI: 10.1002/0471142905.hg1508s88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic technologies used for creating a desired genomic change in animals involve three critical steps: isolation of fertilized eggs, microinjection of transgenic DNA into them and their subsequent transfer to recipient females. These ex vivo steps have been widely used for over 3 decades and they were also readily adapted for the latest genome editing technologies such as ZFNs, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9 systems. We recently developed a method called GONAD (Genome editing via Oviductal Nucleic Acids Delivery) that does not require all the three critical steps of transgenesis and therefore relieves the bottlenecks of widely used animal transgenic technologies. Here we provide protocols for the GONAD system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Channabasavaiah B Gurumurthy
- Mouse Genome Engineering Core Facility, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Gou Takahashi
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science and Molecular Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Department of Bioproduction, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Abashiri, Hokkaido, Japan
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Kenta Wada
- Department of Bioproduction, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Abashiri, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Hiromi Miura
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science and Molecular Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sato
- Section of Gene Expression Regulation, Frontier Science Research Center, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Masato Ohtsuka
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science and Molecular Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
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Takahashi G, Gurumurthy CB, Wada K, Miura H, Sato M, Ohtsuka M. GONAD: Genome-editing via Oviductal Nucleic Acids Delivery system: a novel microinjection independent genome engineering method in mice. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11406. [PMID: 26096991 PMCID: PMC4476150 DOI: 10.1038/srep11406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Microinjection is considered the gold standard technique for delivery of nucleic acids (NAs; transgenes or genome editing tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 systems) into embryos, for creating genetically modified organisms. It requires sophisticated equipment as well as well-trained and highly skilled personnel to perform the micro-injection technique. Here, we describe a novel and simple microinjection-independent technique, called Genome-editing via Oviductal Nucleic Acids Delivery (GONAD). Using GONAD, we show that NAs (e.g., eGFP mRNA or Cas9 mRNA/sgRNAs) can be effectively delivered to pre-implantation embryos within the intact mouse oviduct by a simple electroporation method, and result in the desired genetic modification in the embryos. Thus GONAD can bypass many complex steps in transgenic technology such as isolation of zygotes, microinjection of NAs into them, and their subsequent transfer to pseudo-pregnant animals. Furthermore, this method can potentially be used for genome editing in species other than mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gou Takahashi
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science and Molecular Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, 143 Shimokasuya, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1193, Japan
- Department of Bioproduction, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 196 Yasaka, Abashiri, Hokkaido, 099-2493, Japan
| | - Channabasavaiah B Gurumurthy
- Mouse Genome Engineering Core Facility, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Kenta Wada
- Department of Bioproduction, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 196 Yasaka, Abashiri, Hokkaido, 099-2493, Japan
| | - Hiromi Miura
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science and Molecular Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, 143 Shimokasuya, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1193, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sato
- Section of Gene Expression Regulation, Frontier Science Research Center, Kagoshima University, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Masato Ohtsuka
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science and Molecular Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, 143 Shimokasuya, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1193, Japan
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