Dependence of home outdoor particulate mass and number concentrations on residential and traffic features in urban areas

Farmers and Local Residents Collaborate: Application of a Participatory Citizen Science Approach to Characterising Air Quality in a Rural Area in The Netherlands

In rural areas, livestock farming is a source of environmental concern. We describe a citizen science (CS) project in Venray, the Netherlands, where air quality was measured at livestock farms and surrounding residential premises. We used low-cost methods to measure air quality components and facilitated a dialogue between stakeholders about the results and solutions for cleaner air. PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ were measured using Nova Fitness SDS011 sensors, nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and ammonia (NH₃) using Palmes tubes and odour annoyance was reported. Particulate Matter (PM) concentrations were higher close to layer farms, but elevated concentrations were limited at other farms and residential locations. NO₂ concentrations were elevated near busy roads, and higher NH₃ values were measured near livestock farms. Reporting of odour annoyance was limited, yet during the dialogue residents indicated that this was their largest concern. While both farmers and residents agreed with the general conclusions, they still preferred opposing measures. We conclude that characterisation of air quality using low-cost methods is possible, but expert guidance is needed. Moreover, education, commitment of participants and involvement of independent parties are crucial to ensuring a productive dialogue between stakeholders. The insights gained by participants and resulting dialogue were the greatest benefits of this CS approach.

The Effect of Transportation and Wildfires on the Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity of PM2.5 Mass in the New York-New Jersey Metropolitan Statistical Area

Declining ambient PM_2.5 concentrations have been attributed to fuel consumption standards and emission controls of secondary sulfate and nitrate aerosol precursors from transportation and industrial sectors. As a result, the relative contribution of PM_2.5 sources is modified, shifting PM_2.5 trends, physicochemical characteristics, and health effects. Carbonaceous fine aerosol account for most of PM_2.5 mass in the US. This study aims to examine the spatiotemporal trends of ambient PM_2.5 levels and their association with primary PM_2.5 emissions from anthropogenic activities and fires in the New York/New Jersey metropolitan statistical area (NYNJ MSA) airshed. PM_2.5 mass concentrations were obtained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Air Data. Ambient PM_2.5 mass levels declined on average by 47%, at a rate of -0.61 ± 0.01 μg/m³/year in urban locations and -0.25 ± 0.01 μg/m³/year in upwind and peri-urban locations over the 2007 to 2017 period. The strong spatial gradient in 2007, with high PM_2.5 levels in urban locations and low PM_2.5 levels in peri-urban locations gradually weakened by 2013 but re-appeared in 2017. Over the same period, primary PM_2.5 emissions declined by 52% from transportation, 15% from industrial, and 8% from other anthropogenic sources corresponding to a decrease of 0.8, 0.9, and 0.6 μg/m³ on ambient PM_2.5 mass, respectively. Wildland and prescribed fires emissions increased more than 3 times adding 0.8 μg/m³ to ambient PM_2.5 mass. These results indicate that (i) fire emissions may impede the effectiveness of existing policies to improve air quality and (ii) the chemical content of PM_2.5 may be changing to an evolving mixture of aromatic and oxygenated organic species with differential toxicological responses as compared to inert ammonium sulfate and nitrate salts.

Associations between sources of particle number and mortality in four European cities

BACKGROUND

The evidence on the association between ultrafine (UFP) particles and mortality is still inconsistent. Moreover, health effects of specific UFP sources have not been explored. We assessed the impact of UFP sources on daily mortality in Barcelona, Helsinki, London, and Zurich.

METHODS

UFP sources were previously identified and quantified for the four cities: daily contributions of photonucleation, two traffic sources (fresh traffic and urban, with size mode around 30 nm and 70 nm, respectively), and secondary aerosols were obtained from data from an urban background station. Different periods were investigated in each city: Barcelona 2013-2016, Helsinki 2009-2016, London 2010-2016, and Zurich 2011-2014. The associations between total particle number concentrations (PNC) and UFP sources and daily (natural, cardiovascular [CVD], and respiratory) mortality were investigated using city-specific generalized linear models (GLM) with quasi-Poisson regression.

RESULTS

We found inconsistent results across cities, sources, and lags for associations with natural, CVD, and respiratory mortality. Increased risk was observed for total PNC and natural mortality in Helsinki (lag 2; 1.3% [0.07%, 2.5%]), CVD mortality in Barcelona (lag 1; 3.7% [0.17%, 7.4%]) and Zurich (lag 0; 3.8% [0.31%, 7.4%]), and respiratory mortality in London (lag 3; 2.6% [0.84%, 4.45%]) and Zurich (lag 1; 9.4% [1.0%, 17.9%]). A similar pattern of associations between health outcomes and total PNC was followed by the fresh traffic source, for which we also found the same associations and lags as for total PNC. The urban source (mostly aged traffic) was associated with respiratory mortality in Zurich (lag 1; 12.5% [1.7%, 24.2%]) and London (lag 3; 2.4% [0.90%, 4.0%]) while the secondary source was associated with respiratory mortality in Zurich (lag 1: 12.0% [0.63%, 24.5%]) and Helsinki (4.7% [0.11%, 9.5%]). Reduced risk for the photonucleation source was observed for respiratory mortality in Barcelona (lag 2, -8.6% [-14.5%, -2.4%]) and for CVD mortality in Helsinki, as this source is present only in clean atmospheres (lag 1, -1.48 [-2.75, -0.21]).

CONCLUSIONS

We found inconsistent results across cities, sources and lags for associations with natural, CVD, and respiratory mortality.

Efficient data preprocessing, episode classification, and source apportionment of particle number concentrations

Number concentration is an important index to measure atmospheric particle pollution. However, tailored methods for data preprocessing and characteristic and source analyses of particle number concentrations (PNC) are rare and interpreting the data is time-consuming and inefficient. In this method-oriented study, we develop and investigate some techniques via flexible conditions, C++ optimized algorithms, and parallel computing in R (an open source software for statistics and graphics) to tackle these challenges. The data preprocessing methods include deletions of variables and observations, outlier removal, and interpolation for missing values (NA). They do better in cleaning data and keeping samples and generate no new outliers after interpolation, compared with previous methods. Besides, automatic division of PNC pollution events based on relative values suites PNC properties and highlights the pollution characteristics related to sources and mechanisms. Additionally, basic functions of k-means clustering, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Factor Analysis (FA), Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF), and a newly-introduced model NMF (Non-negative Matrix Factorization) were tested and compared in analyzing PNC sources. Only PMF and NMF can identify coal heating and produce more explicable results, meanwhile NMF apportions more distinctly and runs 11-28 times faster than PMF. Traffic is interannually stable in non-heating periods and always dominant. Coal heating's contribution has decreased by 40%-86% in recent 5 heating periods, reflecting the effectiveness of coal burning control.

Field Evaluation of Low-Cost PM Sensors (Purple Air PA-II) Under Variable Urban Air Quality Conditions, in Greece

Recent advances in particle sensor technologies have led to an increased development and utilization of low-cost, compact, particulate matter (PM) monitors. These devices can be deployed in dense monitoring networks, enabling an improved characterization of the spatiotemporal variability in ambient levels and exposure. However, the reliability of their measurements is an important prerequisite, necessitating rigorous performance evaluation and calibration in comparison to reference-grade instrumentation. In this study, field evaluation of Purple Air PA-II devices (low-cost PM sensors) is performed in two urban environments and across three seasons in Greece, in comparison to different types of reference instruments. Measurements were conducted in Athens (the largest city in Greece with nearly four-million inhabitants) for five months spanning over the summer of 2019 and winter/spring of 2020 and in Ioannina, a medium-sized city in northwestern Greece (100,000 inhabitants) during winter/spring 2019–2020. The PM2.5 sensor output correlates strongly with reference measurements (R2 = 0.87 against a beta attenuation monitor and R2 = 0.98 against an optical reference-grade monitor). Deviations in the sensor-reference agreement are identified as mainly related to elevated coarse particle concentrations and high ambient relative humidity. Simple and multiple regression models are tested to compensate for these biases, drastically improving the sensor’s response. Large decreases in sensor error are observed after implementation of models, leading to mean absolute percentage errors of 0.18 and 0.12 for the Athens and Ioannina datasets, respectively. Overall, a quality-controlled and robustly evaluated low-cost network can be an integral component for air quality monitoring in a smart city. Case studies are presented along this line, where a network of PA-II devices is used to monitor the air quality deterioration during a peri-urban forest fire event affecting the area of Athens and during extreme wintertime smog events in Ioannina, related to wood burning for residential heating.

Wood stove use and other determinants of personal and indoor exposures to particulate air pollution and ozone among elderly persons in a Northern Suburb

A six-month winter-spring study was conducted in a suburb of the northern European city of Kuopio, Finland, to identify and quantify factors determining daily personal exposure and home indoor levels of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5 , diameter <2.5 µm) and its light absorption coefficient (PM_2.5abs ), a proxy for combustion-derived black carbon. Moreover, determinants of home indoor ozone (O₃ ) concentration were examined. Local central site outdoor, home indoor, and personal daily levels of pollutants were monitored in this suburb among 37 elderly residents. Outdoor concentrations of the pollutants were significant determinants of their levels in home indoor air and personal exposures. Natural ventilation in the detached and row houses increased personal exposure to PM_2.5 , but not to PM_2.5abs , when compared with mechanical ventilation. Only cooking out of the recorded household activities increased indoor PM_2.5 . The use of a wood stove room heater or wood-fired sauna stove was associated with elevated concentrations of personal PM_2.5 and PM_2.5abs , and indoor PM_2.5abs . Candle burning increased daily indoor and personal PM_2.5abs , and it was also a determinant of indoor ozone level. In conclusion, relatively short-lasting wood and candle burning of a few hours increased residents' daily exposure to potentially hazardous, combustion-derived carbonaceous particulate matter.

Dependence of urban air pollutants on morning/evening peak hours and seasons

Traffic emission is a major source of air pollution in urban cities of developing world. This paper shows dependence of traffic-related air pollutants in urban cities on morning/evening peak hours and winter/summer seasons. This research also shows the meteorological impact, such as temperature (T), relative humidity (RH), and wind speed (WS), on traffic-related air pollutants in urban cites. Based on the research output, the elevated level of PM concentration was observed between 1.8 and 6.7 times at all nearby roadway locations compared with background (IIT [ISM] campus). We have found 2.3, 2.4, 2.6 (morning) and 2.0, 2.1, and 2.1 (evening) times higher average PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM₁ concentrations, respectively, in the winter than summer monitoring periods across all locations, due to the stable boundary layer, lower mixing height, and lower friction velocity. It is indicated that urban meteorology plays a crucial role in increasing or decreasing exposed pollutant concentrations in various microenvironments. The analysis of PM_2.5/PM₁₀ ratios was lower during whole campaign due to higher contribution of coarser particles generated by vehicles. During winter and summer seasons, 0.57 and 0.33 was observed, respectively. It is indicated that 57% and 33% of PM₁₀ makes up PM_2.5 particle, respectively. PM concentrations have showed a negative linear relationship with T and WS and positive relationship with RH in winter/summer seasons. Therefore, traffic and meteorology play a big role to increase or decrease in traffic-related air pollutants in urban air quality.

Characterization and source identification of sub-micron particles at the HKUST Supersite in Hong Kong

Particle size distribution measurements were conducted continuously at a 30-second interval using the Fast Mobility Particle Sizer (FMPS) in August, September, November and December of 2011 at a coastal background site in Hong Kong. Concurrent measurements of CO, NOx, O3, SO2 and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were used to determine the causes of high particle number concentration (PNC) events. In all sampling months, PNC were usually higher in the evening, likely resulting from the arrival of upwind air pollutants as wind direction changed in the late afternoon. On the more polluted days, the PNC were usually higher around noon, particularly in August, similar to the diurnal trend of O3. The mode diameter at noon was smaller than in other time periods in all sampling months, further highlighting the role of secondary formation at this urban background site. A prolonged period of pollution episode occurred in late August. High PNC resulted from the arrival of pollution laden air from the PRD region or super regions. In December, new particle formation followed by subsequent growth accounted for most of the polluted days. Overall, meteorology was the most important parameter affecting particle concentrations and formation at this Hong Kong background site.

Trends of non-accidental, cardiovascular, stroke and lung cancer mortality in Arkansas are associated with ambient PM2.5 reductions

The cardiovascular and stroke mortality rates in Arkansas are among the highest in the USA. The annual trends of stroke and cardiovascular mortality are barely correlated to smoking cessation; while the prevalence of risk factors such as obesity; cholesterol and hypertension increased over the 1979–2007 period. The study determined the effect of chronic exposure to PM_2.5 on non-accidental; cardiovascular; stroke and lung cancer mortality in Arkansas over the 2000–2010 period using the World Health Organization’s log-linear health impact model. County chronic exposures to PM_2.5 were computed by averaging spatially-resolved gridded concentrations using PM_2.5 observations. A spatial uniformity was observed for PM_2.5 mass levels indicating that chronic exposures were comparable throughout the state. The reduction of PM_2.5 mass levels by 3.0 μg/m³ between 2000 and 2010 explained a significant fraction of the declining mortality. The effect was more pronounced in southern and eastern rural Arkansas as compared to the rest of the state. This study provides evidence that the implementation of air pollution regulations has measurable effects on mortality even in regions with high prevalence of major risk factors such as obesity and smoking. These outcomes are noteworthy as efforts to modify the major risk factors require longer realization times.

Quantitative determination of regional contributions to fine and coarse particle mass in urban receptor sites

In this study, we demonstrate that regression analysis of trajectories residence time estimates the contributions of geographical sectors to fine and coarse particle mass in urban receptor sites. We applied the methodology to coarse and fine particles in Amsterdam, Athens, Birmingham and Helsinki. The sectors with the highest contributions on PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 for Amsterdam and Birmingham were Central/Eastern Europe and the Atlantic Ocean/North Sea, respectively. For Athens, the four sectors within 500 km accounted for the largest fraction of PM2.5. The Mediterranean Sea and North Africa added more than half of PM10-2.5 in Athens. For Helsinki, more than 50% of PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 were from sources outside Finland. This approach may be applied to assess the impact of transport on particle mass levels, identify the spatial patterns of particle sources and generate valuable data to design national and transnational efficient emission control strategies.

Particulate matter air pollution and respiratory symptoms in individuals having either asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a European multicentre panel study

BACKGROUND

Particulate matter air pollution has been associated with adverse health effects. The fraction of ambient particles that are mainly responsible for the observed health effects is still a matter of controversy. Better characterization of the health relevant particle fraction will have major implications for air quality policy since it will determine which sources should be controlled.The RUPIOH study, an EU-funded multicentre study, was designed to examine the distribution of various ambient particle metrics in four European cities (Amsterdam, Athens, Birmingham, Helsinki) and assess their health effects in participants with asthma or COPD, based on a detailed exposure assessment. In this paper the association of central site measurements with respiratory symptoms and restriction of activities is examined.

METHODS

At each centre a panel of participants with either asthma or COPD recorded respiratory symptoms and restriction of activities in a diary for six months. Exposure assessment included simultaneous measurements of coarse, fine and ultrafine particles at a central site. Data on gaseous pollutants were also collected. The associations of the 24-hour average concentrations of air pollution indices with the health outcomes were assessed in a hierarchical modelling approach. A city specific analysis controlling for potential confounders was followed by a meta-analysis to provide overall effect estimates.

RESULTS

A 10 μg/m3 increase in previous day coarse particles concentrations was positively associated with most symptoms (an increase of 0.6 to 0.7% in average) and limitation in walking (OR= 1.076, 95% CI: 1.026-1.128). Same day, previous day and previous two days ozone concentrations were positively associated with cough (OR= 1.061, 95% CI: 1.013-1.111; OR= 1.049, 95% CI: 1.016-1.083 and OR= 1.059, 95% CI: 1.027-1.091, respectively). No consistent associations were observed between fine particle concentrations, nitrogen dioxide and respiratory health effects. As for particle number concentrations negative association (mostly non-significant at the nominal level) was observed with most symptoms whilst the positive association with limitation of activities did not reach the nominal level of significance.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed associations with coarse particles are in agreement with the findings of toxicological studies. Together they suggest it is prudent to regulate also coarse particles in addition to fine particles.

Low-level exposure to ambient particulate matter is associated with systemic inflammation in ischemic heart disease patients

Short-term exposure to ambient air pollution is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality and morbidity. This adverse health effect is suggested to be mediated by inflammatory processes. The purpose of this study was to determine if low levels of particulate matter, typical for smaller cities, are associated with acute systemic inflammation. Fifty-two elderly individuals with ischemic heart disease were followed for six months with biweekly clinical visits in the city of Kotka, Finland. Blood samples were collected for the determination of inflammatory markers interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, interferon (IFN)γ, C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, myeloperoxidase and white blood cell count. Particle number concentration and fine particle (particles with aerodynamic diameters <2.5 μm (PM(2.5))) as well as thoracic particle (particles with aerodynamic diameters <10 μm (PM(10))) mass concentration were measured daily at a fixed outdoor measurement site. Light-absorbance of PM(2.5) filter samples, an indicator of combustion derived particles, was measured with a smoke-stain reflectometer. In addition, personal exposure to PM(2.5) was measured with portable photometers. During the study period, wildfires in Eastern Europe led to a 12-day air pollution episode, which was excluded from the main analyses. Average ambient PM(2.5) concentration was 8.7 μg/m(3). Of the studied pollutants, PM(2.5) and absorbance were most strongly associated with increased levels of inflammatory markers; most notably with C-reactive protein and IL-12 within a few days of exposure. There was also some evidence of an effect of particulate air pollution on fibrinogen and myeloperoxidase. The concentration of IL-12 was considerably (227%) higher during than before the forest fire episode. These findings show that even low levels of particulate air pollution from urban sources are associated with acute systemic inflammation. Also particles from wildfires may exhibit pro-inflammatory effects.

Temporal variations of atmospheric aerosol in four European urban areas

PURPOSE

The concentrations of PM(10) mass, PM(2.5) mass and particle number were continuously measured for 18 months in urban background locations across Europe to determine the spatial and temporal variability of particulate matter.

METHODS

Daily PM(10) and PM(2.5) samples were continuously collected from October 2002 to April 2004 in background areas in Helsinki, Athens, Amsterdam and Birmingham. Particle mass was determined using analytical microbalances with precision of 1 μg. Pre- and post-reflectance measurements were taken using smoke-stain reflectometers. One-minute measurements of particle number were obtained using condensation particle counters.

RESULTS

The 18-month mean PM(10) and PM(2.5) mass concentrations ranged from 15.4 μg/m(3) in Helsinki to 56.7 μg/m(3) in Athens and from 9.0 μg/m(3) in Helsinki to 25.0 μg/m(3) in Athens, respectively. Particle number concentrations ranged from 10,091 part/cm(3) in Helsinki to 24,180 part/cm(3) in Athens with highest levels being measured in winter. Fine particles accounted for more than 60% of PM(10) with the exception of Athens where PM(2.5) comprised 43% of PM(10). Higher PM mass and number concentrations were measured in winter as compared to summer in all urban areas at a significance level p < 0.05.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant quantitative and qualitative differences for particle mass across the four urban areas in Europe were observed. These were due to strong local and regional characteristics of particulate pollution sources which contribute to the heterogeneity of health responses. In addition, these findings also bear on the ability of different countries to comply with existing directives and the effectiveness of mitigation policies.

Land use regression model for ultrafine particles in Amsterdam

There are currently no epidemiological studies on health effects of long-term exposure to ultrafine particles (UFP), largely because data on spatial exposure contrasts for UFP is lacking. The objective of this study was to develop a land use regression (LUR) model for UFP in the city of Amsterdam. Total particle number concentrations (PNC), PM10, PM2.5, and its soot content were measured directly outside 50 homes spread over the city of Amsterdam. Each home was measured during one week. Continuous measurements at a central urban background site were used to adjust the average concentration for temporal variation. Predictor variables (traffic, address density, land use) were obtained using geographic information systems. A model including the product of traffic intensity and the inverse distance to the nearest road squared, address density, and location near the port explained 67% of the variability in measured PNC. LUR models for PM2.5, soot, and coarse particles (PM10, PM2.5) explained 57%, 76%, and 37% of the variability in measured concentrations. Predictions from the PNC model correlated highly with predictions from LUR models for PM2.5, soot, and coarse particles. A LUR model for PNC has been developed, with similar validity as previous models for more commonly measured pollutants.

Comparison of short-term exposure to particle number, PM10 and soot concentrations on three (sub) urban locations

Recent interest has focused on the health effects of ultrafine particles because of the documented toxicity and the larger concentration contrast near motorways of UFP than for PM10 or PM2.5. There are only few studies that have measured UFP at inner-city streets simultaneously with other PM components. The aim of this study was to compare the contrast of UFP, PM(10) and soot measured simultaneously at 3 inner-city locations, namely a moderately busy street (15,000 vehicles/day), a city and a suburban background location. Simultaneously, measurements of particle number concentrations (PNC), PM(10) and soot have been conducted on three locations in and around Utrecht, a medium-sized city in the Netherlands for 20 weekdays in autumn 2008. Measurements were done for 6-h during afternoon and early evening. The mean PNC at the street location was more than 3 times higher than at the two background locations. The contrast was similar for soot concentrations. In PM(10) concentrations less contrast was found, namely 1.8 times. Mean PNC concentrations were poorly correlated with PM(10) and soot. At the street location, high temporal variation of PNC concentrations occurred within each sampling day, probably related to variations in traffic volumes, high-emission individual vehicles and wind direction. Temporal variation was smaller at the two background locations. Occasional unexplained short-term peaks occurred at the suburban background location. A relatively high correlation between PNC minute values at the two background locations was found, pointing to similar area-wide sources. Typically low correlations were found with the street locations, consistent with the dominant impact of local traffic. A large contrast between two background locations and a moderately busy urban street location was found for PNC and soot, comparable to previous studies of much busier motorways. Temporal variation of PNC was higher at the street location and uncorrelated with background variations.

Concentration response functions for ultrafine particles and all-cause mortality and hospital admissions: results of a European expert panel elicitation

Toxicological studies have provided evidence of the toxicity of ultrafine particles (UFP), but epidemiological evidence for health effects of ultrafines is limited. No quantitative summary currently exists of concentration-response functions for ultrafine particles that can be used in health impact assessment. The goal was to specify concentration-response functions for ultrafine particles in urban air including their uncertainty through an expert panel elicitation. Eleven European experts from the disciplines of epidemiology, toxicology, and clinical medicine selected using a systematic peer-nomination procedure participated. Using individual ratings supplemented with group discussion, probability distributions of effect estimates were obtained for all-cause mortality and cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions. Experts judged the small database of epidemiological studies supplemented with experimental studies sufficient to quantify effects of UFP on all-cause mortality and to a lesser extent hospital admissions. Substantial differences in the estimated UFP health effect and its uncertainty were found between experts. The lack of studies on long-term exposure to UFP was rated as the most important source of uncertainty. Effects on hospital admissions were considered more uncertain. This expert elicitation provides the first quantitative evaluation of estimates of concentration response functions between urban air ultrafine particles and all-cause mortality and hospital admissions.