An examination of the effects of labor efficiency on the profitability of grass-based, seasonal-calving dairy farms

The factors contributing to better workplaces for farmers on pasture-based dairy farms

Herd size expansion, combined with the reduced availability of people to work on farms, has led to an increased focus on techniques that can improve dairy farm social sustainability. Effective work organization is one such entity, which could influence farm social sustainability; focusing on having a productive, flexible and standardized farm workload. The objective of this study was to examine the factors that contribute to better workplaces for the farmer using a survey of representative pasture-based dairy farms in Ireland. Potential contributing factors to better workplaces for farmers were identified, namely; farm and farmer characteristics, working day structure, farmer attitudes, farm facilities, labor efficient practices and human resource management practices. A survey was completed by 313 Irish dairy farmers between 20 November and 3 January 2019 to capture relevant information. One proxy indicator was selected to represent each of productivity, flexibility and standardization within the workplace, and each of the 313 farms were categorized into quartiles based on their ranking for these 3 indicators (1 = most effective quartile to 4 = least effective quartile). The average farmer that completed the survey was 51 years old, milked 125 cows, reported to work 69.6 h/ week, take 10.3 d of holidays/ year and had a finish time of 19:52 in spring. The quartile of farms with the most effective farmer workplace reported reduced hours worked per week (58.6 v 82.6 h per week), more holiday days (16.6 v 5.1 d) and weekends off (8.3 v 2.4) per year, and earlier finish times (18:41 v 21:14 in spring) compared with the least effective quartile. Similarly, the most effective farms reported better facilities, and greater implementation of labor efficient and human resource management practices compared with the least effective farms. The most effective quartile for farmer workplace effectiveness were more positive about the industry's potential to offer an effective work-life balance, would be more likely to encourage young people to pursue careers in dairy, and had more positive attitudes toward attracting and retaining workers compared with the least effective quartile. The study highlighted the range of factors contributing to more effective workplaces for farmers, indicating scope for improvement on many farms, and challenges across all farms when compared with other industries in the case of some indicators (e.g., time-off). The results can support the continued extension of concepts regarding work organization to assist farms in alleviating social sustainability challenges; highlighting the differentiating factors between the most and least effective farmer workplaces.

Longitudinal measures of labour time-use on pasture-based dairy farms, incorporating the impact of specific facilities and technologies

The seasonal workload on pasture-based dairy farms, combined with increased herd sizes, have led to an increased focus on farm labour time-use and techniques that can reduce farm labour demand. The objective of this study was to measure labour time-use over time on a sample of pasture-based dairy farms and examine the impact that specific facilities and technologies could have on labour demand in real farm situations. Fifty-seven farms completed two labour time-use studies in spring 2019 and 2021 (1st February to 30th April). Farm labour input was recorded on one day each week during the study period. Results showed that farm labour input increased by 3% (1 364 to 1 403 h) between spring 2019 and 2021 and farm labour efficiency improved by 7% (10.7 to 10.0 h/cow), while herd size increased by 10% (145 to 160 cows). Case study farms that made substantial changes to the milking and calf care facilities and practices (between 2019 and 2021) were selected to examine the impact of these changes on labour demand and efficiency. The four case study farms that implemented new milking parlours or added additional milking units improved their milking efficiency by 15% (2.89 to 2.45 h/cow per farm) and reduced milking labour input by 15% (402 to 342 h per farm). Seventeen farms made substantial calf care changes such as constructing a new calf shed, installing an automatic calf feeder, selling male calves and contract rearing heifer calves preweaning. These farms had on average 26 more cows per farm in 2021 than in 2019 (increasing from 137 to 163 cows), but calf care labour input declined by 5% (240 to 228 h per farm) and calf care labour efficiency improved by 16% (1.83 to 1.53 h/cow per farm). Of these farms, the largest improvement was observed on the eight farms that installed automatic calf feeders, where calf care labour efficiency improved by 23% (1.76 to 1.36 h/cow). Results of this study contribute to our understanding of labour use on pasture-based dairy farms and how it can change over time. The real-time on-farm case studies can reassure farmers of the positive benefits that the facilities and technologies outlined in this study can have on labour efficiency.

The impact of work organisation on the work life of people on pasture-based dairy farms

The seasonal workload combined with increased dairy herd sizes and a declining workforce have created social sustainability challenges for pasture-based dairy farms. Effective work organisation can build productive capacity that may have a positive impact on this scenario. Our objective was to develop a framework to characterise and examine the effect of work organisation on the working situations of the people involved in a sample of 55 pasture-based dairy farms in Ireland. We conceptualised that effective work organisation on a dairy farm could be considered as a system that is efficient from a labour input perspective, resulting in a profitable farming system with outcomes of good operator well-being, health and safety, and quality of life. A literature review established efficiency & productivity, flexibility and standardisation as our three characteristics of work organisation. Using data from an existing labour time-use study completed from the 1st February to 30th June 2019, we aimed to test the veracity of these work organisation characteristics in the Irish pasture-based dairy system. Two proxy indicators were selected to represent each of the three work organisation characteristics, and each of the 55 farms were categorised into quartiles based on their ranking for these six indicators (1 = most effective quartile to 4 = least effective quartile). The most and least effective quartiles of farms for work organisation showed similar levels of farm labour input and labour efficiency. Farmers in the most effective work organisation quartile were working 51.2 h/week from February to June compared with 70.0 h/week for farmers in the least effective quartile, which was attributed to later start times, earlier finish times, and more time at non-farm activity. Farms achieving effective work organisation had a labour-efficient system with relatively low farmer working hours. Extension of the work organisation concept to other farms could improve their labour situation and aid in alleviating some of the key quality of life challenges faced by dairy farmers.

The Multiple Influences on the Future of Work in Agriculture: Global Perspectives

In this introductory paper, we discuss changes in work in agriculture arising from the influence of a wide variety of factors: global food chains and societal controversies about farming models, the status of agricultural work as a profession alongside others; the progress of rural development; issues of precariousness in work and in health. We summarize these influences and their implications to introduce the Special Issue “Work in agriculture: which perspectives?”, and outline the seven papers that contribute to understanding of the future trajectories for work in agriculture.

Implementation of compact calving at the farm level: A qualitative analysis of farmers operating pasture-based dairy systems in Ireland

Pasture-based dairy systems aim to maximize the proportion of grazed pasture in the cow's diet by having a compact calving season that coincides with the onset of the grass growing season. In Ireland, where pasture-based systems are dominant, a key performance indicator that reflects the degree of compact calving is referred to as 6-wk calving rate (6-wk CR). Although the industry target is 90%, the national average 6-wk CR in Ireland is currently 67%. The aim of this study was to use qualitative research to understand in depth farmers' experiences in implementing a high 6-wk CR. Ten case-study dairy farmers were interviewed using the biographical narrative interpretive method. We identified 5 broad and often interrelated themes evoked by farmers regarding 6-wk CR: the "good" farmer; support networks; free time and family time; simplicity of a structured system; and profitability and monetary gain. The findings of this study identify complexities and challenges at farm level when it comes to increasing 6-wk CR, such as increased workload and challenges associated with large numbers of male calves born during a condensed calving season. Benefits experienced by farmers as a result of increasing 6-wk CR included increased days in milk and consequently improved cash flow as well as increased grass utilization. Our findings are of interest to researchers and extension agents involved in programs concerned with reproductive management in pasture-based dairy systems.

A survey analysis of farmer practices and perceptions of zero-grazing on Irish dairy farms

Zero-grazing (ZG; the mechanical harvesting and feeding of fresh grass) is increasingly used in grass-based milk production systems alongside conventional grazing. It allows farmers to supply fresh grass from land parcels that are outside of the main grazing block during seasonal shortages and periods when climatic conditions limit animal grazing opportunities. The objective of this study was to establish an understanding of current ZG practices on Irish dairy farms, to capture farmer perceptions on the implementation of this management practice, and to identify farmer knowledge requirements on ZG. An online survey was distributed and completed by 130 dairy farmers who use or have used ZG. Zero-grazing was used alongside conventional grazing by 92% of respondents. These farms were particularly fragmented, with between 1 and 14 separate land blocks. Respondents felt ZG helped them overcome fragmentation, increase grass use, and extend grass feeding in spring and autumn. However, extra cost and time input associated with ZG were recognized as key challenges. The majority of respondents rated current technical information available on ZG in the Republic of Ireland as "poor" or "very poor," and knowledge deficits were identified in the areas of cost analysis, grass management and productivity, cow productivity, cow health and nutrition, and soil fertility.

Analysis of adoption trends of in-parlor technologies over a 10-year period for labor saving and data capture on pasture-based dairy farms

The use of precision technology is increasingly seen as an option to improve productivity, animal welfare, resource use efficiency, and workplace features on dairy farms. There is limited research related to longitudinal adoption patterns of precision dairy technologies and reasons for any patterns. The aim of this analysis was to investigate trends in technology adoption regarding both the amount (number of farms with a technology) and intensity (number of technologies per farm) of adoption. Surveys of parlor technology adoption were conducted on New Zealand dairy farms in 2008, 2013, and 2018, with 532, 500, and 500 respondents, respectively. Technologies were grouped into labor-saving (LS, such as automatic cluster removers) or data-capture (DC, such as in-line milk meters) categories. Trends were examined for farms that had only LS, only DC, or LS+DC technologies. Technology adoption increased over time; the likelihood of technology adoption in 2018 (and 2013 in parentheses) increased by 21 (22), 7 (68), and 378% (165) for LS, DC, and LS+DC technology groups, respectively, compared to 2008. Farms with LS+DC technologies also had a greater proportion of LS technologies compared to non-LS+DC farms, although this relationship declined over the 10-yr period. The use of a rotary versus herringbone parlor was estimated to be associated with 356 and 470% increase in the likelihood of adopting LS technologies and LS+DC, respectively, from 2008 to 2018. Regional differences in adoption were also found, with the likelihood of adopting DC and LS+DC technologies found to be 46 and 59% greater, respectively, in the South Island of New Zealand, compared to the base region of Waikato. The results highlight the importance of understanding spatial and temporal farm characteristics when considering future effect and adoption of precision dairy technologies. For example, the analysis indicates the occurrence of 2 trajectories to technology investment on farms, where larger farms are able to take advantage of technology opportunities, but smaller farms may be constrained by factors such as lack of economies of scale, limited capital to invest, and inability to retrofit technology into aging parlor infrastructure.