Analysis of cheese for histamine, tyramine, tryptamine, histidine, tyrosine, and tryptophane

A systematic review to identify biomarkers of intake for fermented food products

Background

Fermented foods are ubiquitous in human diets and often lauded for their sensory, nutritious, and health-promoting qualities. However, precise associations between the intake of fermented foods and health have not been well-established. This is in part due to the limitations of current dietary assessment tools that rely on subjective reporting, making them prone to memory-related errors and reporting bias. The identification of food intake biomarkers (FIBs) bypasses this challenge by providing an objective measure of intake. Despite numerous studies reporting on FIBs for various types of fermented foods and drinks, unique biomarkers associated with the fermentation process (“fermentation-dependent” biomarkers) have not been well documented. We therefore conducted a comprehensive, systematic review of the literature to identify biomarkers of fermented foods commonly consumed in diets across the world.

Results

After title, abstract, and full-text screening, extraction of data from 301 articles resulted in an extensive list of compounds that were detected in human biofluids following the consumption of various fermented foods, with the majority of articles focusing on coffee (69), wine (69 articles), cocoa (62), beer (34), and bread (29). The identified compounds from all included papers were consolidated and sorted into FIBs proposed for a specific food, for a food group, or for the fermentation process. Alongside food-specific markers (e.g., trigonelline for coffee), and food-group markers (e.g., pentadecanoic acid for dairy intake), several fermentation-dependent markers were revealed. These comprised compounds related to the fermentation process of a particular food, such as mannitol (wine), 2-ethylmalate (beer), methionine (sourdough bread, cheese), theabrownins (tea), and gallic acid (tea, wine), while others were indicative of more general fermentation processes (e.g., ethanol from alcoholic fermentation, 3-phenyllactic acid from lactic fermentation).

Conclusions

Fermented foods comprise a heterogeneous group of foods. While many of the candidate FIBs identified were found to be non-specific, greater specificity may be observed when considering a combination of compounds identified for individual fermented foods, food groups, and from fermentation processes. Future studies that focus on how fermentation impacts the composition and nutritional quality of food substrates could help to identify novel biomarkers of fermented food intake.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12263-021-00686-4.

Biogenic amines formation and their importance in fermented foods

Biogenic amines (BAs) are low molecular weight organic bases with an aliphatic, aromatic, or heterocyclic structure which have been found in many foods. biogenic amines have been related with several outbreaks of food-borne intoxication and are very important in public health concern because of their potential toxic effects. The accumulation of biogenic amines in foods is mainly due to the presence of bacteria able to decarboxylate certain amino acids. Biogenic amines are formed when the alpha carboxvl group breaks away from free amino acid precursors. They are colled after the amino acid they originated from. The main biogenic amines producers in foods are Gram positive bacteria and cheese is among the most commonly implicated foods associated with biogenic amines poisoning. The consumption of foods containing high concentrations of biogenic amines has been associated with health hazards and they are used as a quality indicator that shows the degree of spoilage, use of non-hygienic raw material and poor manufacturing practice. Biogenic amines may also be considered as carcinogens because they are able to react with nitrites to form potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines. Generally, biogenic amines in foods can be controlled by strict use of good hygiene in both raw material and manufacturing environments with corresponding inhibition of spoiling microorganisms. The aim of this review was to give some information about biogenic amines in foods.

Ultra-Stable UiO-66 Involved Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Specific and Sensitive Determination of Tyramine Based on Quartz Crystal Microbalance Technology

A rapid method was developed to determine the content of tyramine in food on the basis of the combination of molecular imprinting technique and the metal-organic frameworks. We developed the new molecular imprinted polymers based on metal-organic frameworks UiO-66 (named UiO-66@MIPs) as the sensing recognition element, the non-molecular imprinted polymers based on UiO-66 (named UiO-66@NIPs) was synthesized according the same steps without tyramine for comparison. The characterization of obtained UiO-66@MIPs was investigated through a series of characterization experiments. The results indicated that the octahedral shaped UiO-66 was encapsulated in the sol-gel polymer film, with a desirable thermal stability and possessed a specific surface area (SSA) of 994.3 m²·g⁻¹. The imprinting factor of the UiO-66@MIPs for tyramine was 1.956 in static experiment. This indicates the synthesized UiO-66@MIPs have outstanding performance compered to UiO-66@NIPs on the static adsorption quantity and selective adsorption affinity. It’s to make use of advantages of the synthetic materials to develop a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensor for the sensitive detection of tyramine. The detection limit of the system was 61.65 μg·L⁻¹ within measurable concentration range from 80 to 500 μg·L⁻¹. The prepared QCM sensor was verified in selectivity and application. The UiO-66@MIPs possess good behavior on selectivity, absorptivity, and chemical stability, so the UiO-66@MIPs achieve accurate and rapid trace detection of biogenic amines in food combining with the quartz crystal microbalance.

Some Properties of Fresh and Ripened Traditional Akcakatik Cheese

Akcakatik cheese (yogurt cheese) is produced by drying strained yogurt with or without adding cloves or black cumin. The main objective of this study was to detect the properties of both fresh and ripened Akcakatik cheeses and to compare them. For this purpose the biogenic amine content, volatile flavor compounds, protein degradation level, chemical properties and some microbiological properties of 15 Akcakatik cheese samples were investigated. Titratable acidity, total dry matter, NaCl, total nitrogen, water soluble nitrogen, ripened index, histamine, diacetyl and acetaldehyde levels were found to be higher in ripened cheese samples than in fresh cheese samples. On the other hand, the clove and black cumin ratios were found to be higher in the fresh cheese samples. Sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electropherograms of cheese samples showed that protein degradation was higher in ripened cheese samples than in fresh samples, as expected. The dominant Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) flora of Akcakatik cheese samples were found to be Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus.

Thermus and the Pink Discoloration Defect in Cheese

A DNA sequencing-based strategy was applied to study the microbiology of Continental-type cheeses with a pink discoloration defect. The basis for this phenomenon has remained elusive, despite decades of research. The bacterial composition of cheese containing the defect was compared to that of control cheese using 16S rRNA gene and shotgun metagenomic sequencing as well as quantitative PCR (qPCR). Throughout, it was apparent that Thermus, a carotenoid-producing genus, was present at higher levels in defect-associated cheeses than in control cheeses. Prompted by this finding and data confirming the pink discoloration to be associated with the presence of a carotenoid, a culture-based approach was employed, and Thermus thermophilus was successfully cultured from defect-containing cheeses. The link between Thermus and the pinking phenomenon was then established through the cheese defect equivalent of Koch's postulates when the defect was recreated by the reintroduction of a T. thermophilus isolate to a test cheese during the manufacturing process. IMPORTANCE Pink discoloration in cheese is a defect affecting many cheeses throughout the world, leading to significant financial loss for the dairy industry. Despite decades of research, the cause of this defect has remained elusive. The advent of high-throughput, next-generation sequencing has revolutionized the field of food microbiology and, with respect to this study, provided a means of testing a possible microbial basis for this defect. In this study, a combined 16S rRNA, whole-genome sequencing, and quantitative PCR approach was taken. This resulted in the identification of Thermus, a carotenoid-producing thermophile, in defect-associated cheeses and the recreation of the problem in cheeses to which Thermus was added. This finding has the potential to lead to new strategies to eliminate this defect, and our method represents an approach that can be employed to investigate the role of microbes in other food defects of unknown origin.

Characterization of the tyramine-producing pathway in Sporolactobacillus sp. P3J

A sporulated lactic acid bacterium (LAB) isolated from cider must was shown to harbour the tdc gene encoding tyrosine decarboxylase. The isolate belonged to the Sporolactobacillus genus and may correspond to a novel species. The ability of the tdc-positive strain, Sporolactobacillus sp. strain P3J, to produce tyramine in vitro was demonstrated by using HPLC. A 7535 bp nucleotide sequence harbouring the putative tdc gene was determined. Analysis of the obtained sequence showed that four tyramine production-associated genes [tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (tyrS), tyrosine decarboxylase (tdc), tyrosine permease (tyrP) and Na(+)/H(+) antiporter (nhaC)] were present and were organized as already described in other tyramine-producing LAB. This operon was surrounded by genes showing the highest identities with mobile elements: a putative phage terminase and a putative transposase (downstream and upstream, respectively), suggesting that the tyramine-forming trait was acquired through horizontal gene transfer. Transcription analyses of the tdc gene cluster suggested that tyrS and nhaC are expressed as monocistronic genes while tdc would be part of a polycistronic mRNA together with tyrP. The presence of tyrosine in the culture medium induced the expression of all genes except for tyrS. A clear correlation was observed between initial tyrosine concentration and tyramine production combined with an increase in the final pH reached by the culture. Finally, cloning and expression of the tyrP gene in Lactococcus lactis demonstrated that its product catalyses the exchange of tyrosine and tyramine.

Identification of a tyrosine decarboxylase gene (tdcA) in Streptococcus thermophilus 1TT45 and analysis of its expression and tyramine production in milk

In this study, a tyrosine decarboxylase gene (tdcA) was identified in 1 among 83 Streptococcus thermophilus strains tested. Its sequence, nearly identical to that of a tdcA of Lactobacillus curvatus, indicated a horizontal gene transfer event. Transcription in milk and the formation of critical levels of tyramine were observed in the presence of tyrosine.

The arthrobacter arilaitensis Re117 genome sequence reveals its genetic adaptation to the surface of cheese

Arthrobacter arilaitensis is one of the major bacterial species found at the surface of cheeses, especially in smear-ripened cheeses, where it contributes to the typical colour, flavour and texture properties of the final product. The A. arilaitensis Re117 genome is composed of a 3,859,257 bp chromosome and two plasmids of 50,407 and 8,528 bp. The chromosome shares large regions of synteny with the chromosomes of three environmental Arthrobacter strains for which genome sequences are available: A. aurescens TC1, A. chlorophenolicus A6 and Arthrobacter sp. FB24. In contrast however, 4.92% of the A. arilaitensis chromosome is composed of ISs elements, a portion that is at least 15 fold higher than for the other Arthrobacter strains. Comparative genomic analyses reveal an extensive loss of genes associated with catabolic activities, presumably as a result of adaptation to the properties of the cheese surface habitat. Like the environmental Arthrobacter strains, A. arilaitensis Re117 is well-equipped with enzymes required for the catabolism of major carbon substrates present at cheese surfaces such as fatty acids, amino acids and lactic acid. However, A. arilaitensis has several specificities which seem to be linked to its adaptation to its particular niche. These include the ability to catabolize D-galactonate, a high number of glycine betaine and related osmolyte transporters, two siderophore biosynthesis gene clusters and a high number of Fe(3+)/siderophore transport systems. In model cheese experiments, addition of small amounts of iron strongly stimulated the growth of A. arilaitensis, indicating that cheese is a highly iron-restricted medium. We suggest that there is a strong selective pressure at the surface of cheese for strains with efficient iron acquisition and salt-tolerance systems together with abilities to catabolize substrates such as lactic acid, lipids and amino acids.

Chemical and instrumental approaches to cheese analysis

Overcoming the complexity of cheese matrix to reliably analyze cheese composition, flavor, and ripening changes has been a challenge. Several sample isolation or fractionation methods, chemical and enzymatic assays, and instrumental methods have been developed over the decades. While some of the methods are well established standard methods, some still need to be researched and improved. This chapter reviews the chemical and instrumental methods available to determine cheese composition and monitor biochemical events (e.g., glycolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis) during cheese ripening that lead to the formation of cheese flavor. Chemical and enzymatic methods available for analysis of cheese composition (fat, protein, lactose, salt, nitrogen content, moisture, etc.) are presented. Electrophoretic, chromatographic, and spectroscopic techniques are also reviewed in the light of their application to monitor cheese ripening and flavor compounds. Novel instrumental methods based on Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy that are currently being researched and applied to cheese analysis are introduced.

The effect of storage temperatures and packaging methods on properties of Motal cheese

The effects of storage temperature (+4 degrees C and -18 degrees C) and packaging method (nonvacuum and vacuum) on biogenic amines in Motal cheese during storage periods were investigated. In addition, dry matter, titratable acidity, total nitrogen, water-soluble nitrogen, trichloroacetic acid-soluble nitrogen, phosphotungstic acid-soluble nitrogen, free amino group (proteolysis), electrophoretic patterns of casein, and amounts of lactic acid bacteria and coliforms were determined. Storage period had a significant effect on all of the biogenic amines. When compared with vacuum packaging, normal packaging had higher amounts of putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, and tyramine. Coliforms were not found at detectable levels (<100cfu/g) in all cheese samples. Results of urea-PAGE analysis of cheese samples were in good agreement with biogenic amine results and other proteolysis parameters.

Updated molecular knowledge about histamine biosynthesis by bacteria

Histamine poisoning is caused by the ingestion of food containing high levels of histamine, a biogenic amine. Histamine could be expected in virtually all foods that contain proteins or free histidine and that are subject to conditions enabling microbial activity. In most histamine-containing foods the majority of the histamine is generated by decarboxylation of the histidine through histidine decarboxylase enzymes derived from the bacteria present in food. Bacterial histidine decarboxylases have been extensively studied and characterized in different organisms and two different enzymes groups have been distinguished, pyridoxal phosphate- and the pyruvoyl-dependent. Pyridoxal phosphate-dependent histidine decarboxylases are encountered in gram-negative bacteria belonging to various species. Pyruvoyl-dependent histidine decarboxylases are found in gram-positive bacteria and specially in lactic acid bacteria implicated in food fermentation or spoilage. The molecular organization of the genes involved in histamine production have been elucidated in several histamine-producer bacteria. This molecular knowledge has led to the development of molecular methods for the rapid detection of bacteria possessing the ability to produce histamine. The detection of histamine-producer bacteria is of great importance for its potential health hazard as well as from an economic point of view since products exceeding recommended limits can be refused in commercial transactions.

Simple and rapid determination of histamine in food using a new histamine dehydrogenase from Rhizobium sp

A colorimetric enzyme assay for the quantitative analysis of histamine in food has been developed using a new histamine dehydrogenase (HDH) from Rhizobium sp. The HDH specifically catalyzes the oxidation of histamine but not other biogenic amines such as putrescine and cadaverine. The principle of our photometric assay is as follows. The HDH catalyzes the oxidative deamination of histamine in the presence of 1-methoxy PMS (electron carrier), which converts WST-8 (tetrazolium salt) to a formazan. This product is measured in the visible range at 460 nm. The correlation between the histamine level and absorbance was acceptable, ranging from 0 to 96 microM with histamine standard solutions, corresponding to 0 to 30 microM of the reaction solution (r = 1.000, CV = 1.0% or less). Assays of canned tuna (in oil and soup) and raw tuna with 45-675 micromol/kg histamine added showed good recoveries of 96-113, 98-108, and 100-106%. The histamine contents of a commercial canned tuna and fish meal containing histamine at high concentrations were determined using the new method and other reference methods (HPLC method, Association of Official Analytical Chemists official method, and two commercial enzyme immunoassay test kits). This simple and rapid enzymatic method is as reliable as the conventional methods.

Multiplex PCR for colony direct detection of Gram-positive histamine- and tyramine-producing bacteria

Formation of biogenic amines (BA) may occur in fermented foods and beverages due to the amino acid decarboxylase activities of Gram-positive bacteria. These compounds may cause food poisoning and therefore could imply food exportation problems. A set of consensual primers based on histidine decarboxylase gene (hdc) sequences of different bacteria was designed for the detection of histamine-producing Gram-positive bacteria. A multiplex PCR based on these hdc primers and recently designed primers targeting the tyrosine decarboxylase (tyrdc) gene was created. A third set of primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene of eubacteria was also used as an internal control. This multiplex PCR was performed on extracted DNA as well as directly on cell colonies. The results obtained show that this new molecular tool allowed for the detection of Gram-positive histamine- and/or tyramine-producing bacteria. The use of this molecular tool for early and rapid detection of Gram-positive BA-producing bacteria is of interest in evaluating the potential of cultured indigenous strains to produce biogenic amines in a fermented food product as well as to validate the innocuity of potential starter strains in the food industry.

Determination of tyramine in cheese by LC-UV

An isocratic reversed-phase liquid chromatographic assay for tyramine has been developed. The method is based on the reaction of tyramine with 4-chloro-7-nitrobenzofurazan and measurement of the absorbance at 458 nm after chromatographic separation on a C-18 column. Optimum reaction conditions were investigated. A linear relationship was found between absorbance and concentration over the range 25-300 ng per 10 microl of tyramine. The method was applied to the determination of tyramine in cheese. The cheese sample was homogenized with 5% (w/v) HClO(4) extracted with ethyl acetate-acetone (2:1) and chromatographed on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after derivatization reaction with NBD-Cl. The determination limit was 25 microg/g cheese. The mean recovery of tyramine from cheese was 98.0%.

Effects of pH, temperature and NaCl concentration on the growth kinetics, proteolytic activity and biogenic amine production of Enterococcus faecalis

In this work, the combined effects of temperature, pH and NaCl concentration on the growth dynamics of Enterococcus faecalis EF37, its proteolytic activity and its production of biogenic amines have been studied. The effects of the selected variables have been analysed using a Central Composite Design. The production of biogenic amines, under the adopted conditions, was found to be mainly dependent on the extent of growth of E. faecalis. Its proteolytic activity was not a limiting factor for the final amine production, because in the system studied (skim milk) an excess of precursors was guaranteed. Quantitatively, the most important biogenic amine produced was 2-phenylethylamine but substantial amounts of tyramine were detected in all the samples. This work confirms that the main biological feature influencing the biogenic amine formation is the extent of growth of microorganisms, like E. faecalis, characterised by decarboxylase activity. In the traditional and artisanal cheeses produced using raw milk, enterococci usually reach levels of 10(7) cells/g. With this perspective, it is important that the presence of biogenic amines due to the activities of these microorganisms is maintained within safe levels, without affecting the positive effects of enterococci on the final organoleptic characteristics of the cheese.

Tyramine content of previously restricted foods in monoamine oxidase inhibitor diets

Traditional monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) remain an important class of drugs for a variety of psychiatric conditions, including depressive illnesses, anxiety, and eating disorders. It was the objective of this study to refine the MAOI diet by determining the tyramine content of a variety of untested and "controversial" foods that continue to appear on MAOI diet-restricted food lists. A secondary objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of freshness on the tyramine content of some foods. Fifty-one food samples were evaluated for tyramine content by liquid chromatography. Food samples included a selection of sausages, beverages, sliced meat products, including chicken liver, and some fruits, including raspberries, bananas, and banana peels. Foods that were found to have dangerously high concentrations of tyramine (> or = 6 mg/serving) included chicken liver aged 9 days (63.84 mg/30 g), air-dried sausage (7.56 g/30 g), soy sauce (0.941 mg/ml), and sauerkraut (7.75 mg/250 g). Of the foods analyzed in this study, only those with high tyramine content per serving should continue to be absolutely restricted. All other foods are either safe for consumption or safe in moderation. The data provided should be combined with the data from other similar analytical studies to develop a list of foods that should be absolutely restricted. A more accurate list of restricted foods may enhance patient dietary compliance.

High-performance liquid chromatographic evaluation of biogenic amines in foods. An analysis of different methods of sample preparation in relation to food characteristics

Biogenic amines are compounds formed by amino acid decarboxylation in fermented foods. Most of the methods for amine determination involve acid extraction followed by a liquid-liquid purification step. The different parameters which can influence amine recoveries are considered; experience with different foods such as cheese, fish and meat preserves are reported and for each of them the optimized analytical procedure is described. Data concerning recovery and repeatability of the method are also reported and the various factors that influence amine extraction are discussed. The possibility of applying direct derivatization without any other purification step is also considered.

Simultaneous extraction and quantitation of several bioactive amines in cheese and chocolate

A method is described for simultaneous extraction and quantitation of the amines 2-phenylethylamine, tele-methylhistamine, histamine, tryptamine, m- and p-tyramine, 3-methoxytyramine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, cadaverine, putrescine, spermidine and spermine. This method is based on extractive derivatization of the amines with a perfluoroacylating agent, pentafluorobenzoyl chloride, under basic aqueous conditions. Analysis was done on a gas chromatograph equipped with an electron-capture detector and a capillary column system. The procedure is relatively rapid and provides derivatives with good chromatographic properties. Its application to analysis of the above amines in cheese and chocolate products is described.