Surgical intervention for pituitary apoplexy: an analysis of functional outcomes

Pituitary Apoplexy: a re-appraisal of risk factors and best management strategies in the COVID-19 era

Pituitary apoplexy (PA) is a clinical syndrome caused by acute hemorrhage and/or infarction of the pituitary gland, most commonly in the setting of a pituitary macroadenoma. PA generally presents with severe headache, nausea, vomiting, visual disturbance, and, in more severe cases, altered mental status. Many factors have been attributed to the risk of developing PA, including most recently, numerous reports showcasing an association with COVID-19 infection or vaccination. Initial management of PA includes evaluation and correction of deficient hormones and electrolytes and an assessment if surgical decompression to relieve pressure on optic nerves and other brain structures is needed. While prompt recognition and treatment are crucial to avoid morbidity and mortality, in the modern era, PA is less commonly considered a true neurosurgical emergency requiring immediate (< 24 h) surgical decompression. Traditionally, surgical decompression has been the standard of care for significant mass effects. However, several studies have shown similar outcomes in visual and hormonal recovery with either surgical decompression or conservative medical management. Unfortunately, most evidence on optimal management strategies is limited to retrospective case series, small prospective studies, and one multi-center observational study. This review aims to provide the most up-to-date evidence on the role of COVID-19 in PA and best management strategies.

Exploring risk factors of severe pituitary apoplexy: Insights from a multicenter study of 71 cases

PURPOSE

To identify clinical and radiological factors associated with a higher risk of developing a severe pituitary apoplexy (PA).

METHODS

Multicenter retrospective study of patients presenting with clinical PA in three Spanish tertiary hospitals of Madrid between 2008 and 2022. We classified PA as severe when presenting with an altered level of consciousness (Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) < 15) or visual involvement.

RESULTS

A total of 71 PA cases were identified, of whom 80.28% (n = 57) were classified as severe PA. The median age was 60 (18 to 85 years old) and 67.6% (n = 48) were male. Most patients had macroadenomas, except for one patient with a microadenoma of 9 mm. Headache was the most common presenting symptom (90.1%) and anticoagulation was the most frequent predisposing risk factor, but it was not associated with a higher risk for severe PA (odds ratio [OR] 1.13 [0.21-5.90]). Severe cases were associated with male gender (OR 5.53 [1.59-19.27]), tumor size >20 mm (OR 17.67 [4.07-76.64]), and Knosp grade ≥2 (OR 9.6 [2.38-38.73]). In the multivariant analysis, the only variables associated with a higher risk for severe PA were tumor size and Knosp grade. Surgery was more common in severe PA than in non-severe (91.2% vs. 64.3%, P = 0.009).

CONCLUSION

A tumor size >20 mm and cavernous sinus invasion are risk factors for developing a severe PA. These risk factors can stratify patients at a higher risk of a worse clinical picture, and subsequently, more need of decompressive surgery.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Pituitary Apoplexy, A True Endocrine Emergency

Pituitary apoplexy (PA) is a clinical syndrome resulting from a hemorrhagic infarction of the pituitary gland. It is characterized by the sudden onset of visual disturbances, nausea, vomiting, headache and occasionally, signs of meningeal irritation and an altered mental status. The exact pathogenesis of PA remains to be elucidated, although tumor overgrowth of its blood supply remains the most popular theory. Main risk factors for the development of PA include systemic, iatrogenic, and external factors as well as the presence of an underlying pituitary tumor. The diagnostic approach of PA includes both neuroimaging and evaluation of pituitary secretory function. PA is a potentially life-threatening condition which should be managed with hemodynamic stabilization, correction of electrolyte abnormalities and replacement of hormonal deficiencies. PA treatment should be individualized based on the severity of the clinical picture which may vary widely. Treatment options include conservative management with periodic follow-up or neurosurgical intervention, which should be decided by a multidisciplinary team. We conducted a systematic review of the literature to unveil the frequency of PA predisposing factors, clinical and biochemical presentations, management strategies and outcomes.

Pituitary Apoplexy: An Updated Review

Pituitary apoplexy (PA) is an acute, life-threatening clinical syndrome caused by hemorrhage and/or infarction of the pituitary gland. It is clinically characterized by the sudden onset of headache. Depending on the severity, it may also be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, visual disturbances, varying degrees of adenohypophyseal hormone deficiency, and decreased level of consciousness. Corticotropic axis involvement may result in severe hypotension and contribute to impaired level of consciousness. Precipitating factors are present in up to 30% of cases. PA may occur at any age and sometimes develops during pregnancy or the immediate postpartum period. PA occurs more frequently in men aged 50-60, being rare in children and adolescents. It can develop in healthy pituitary glands or those affected by inflammation, infection, or tumor. The main cause of PA is usually spontaneous hemorrhage or infarction of a pituitary adenoma (pituitary neuroendocrine tumor, PitNET). It is a medical emergency requiring immediate attention and, in many cases, urgent surgical intervention and long-term follow-up. Although the majority of patients (70%) require surgery, about one-third can be treated conservatively, mainly by monitoring fluid and electrolyte levels and using intravenous glucocorticoids. There are scoring systems for PA with implications for management and therapeutic outcomes that can help guide therapeutic decisions. Management of PA requires proper evaluation and long-term follow-up by a multidisciplinary team with expertise in pituitary pathology. The aim of the review is to summarize and update the most relevant aspects of the epidemiology, etiopathogenesis, pathophysiology, clinical presentation and clinical forms, diagnosis, therapeutic strategies, and prognosis of PA.

A case report of pituitary neuroendocrine tumor manifesting as severe conjunctival chemosis

BACKGROUND

Conjunctival chemosis (CC) is an extremely rare symptom of pituitary neuroendocrine tumor (PitNET). We report an extremely rare case of PitNET manifesting as severe CC.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 48-year-old male was admitted to our hospital with severe CC, proptosis, and ptosis of the right eye. Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated the tumor mass invading the cavernous sinus (CS) with cystic lesion. The patient underwent emergent endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery, and the pathological diagnosis was PitNET. CC of the right eye remarkably improved after the surgery. Glucocorticoid therapy was performed for right oculomotor nerve palsy, which rapidly improved. The postoperative course was uneventful and the patient was discharged from our hospital without hormone replacement.

CONCLUSIONS

CC caused by CS invasion of PitNET can be cured by early surgical treatment. Therefore, PitNET is important to consider in the differential diagnosis of CC.

Pituitary apoplexy during pregnancy with transsphenoidal resection and intraoperative fetal monitoring: A case report

Introduction

Prolactinomas resulting in pituitary apoplexy are an uncommon obstetrical complication. The hemorrhage can cause compression and necrosis of the pituitary gland as well as the optic chiasm, necessitating surgical intervention.

Case

A 35-year-old woman, G0, presented for an infertility consult with a prior diagnosis of polycystic ovarian syndrome. Evaluation for oligomenorrhea found an elevated prolactin level of 69.76 ng/mL, an elevated DHEA-S of 524, and HgbA1c of 5.7%. The patient denied visual or neurological symptoms. Infertility treatment was started, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain was recommended; however, the patient forewent imaging. Within a few months, she was pregnant. At 27 weeks of gestation, the patient developed sudden visual field loss to the right eye and presented to her optometrist. MRI of the pituitary identified a sellar mass with suprasellar extension, consistent with a recently hemorrhaged pituitary macroadenoma or pituitary apoplexy with displacement of the optic chiasm. Due to the risks of permanent optic nerve damage, the patient underwent endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal hypophysectomy with intraoperative fetal monitoring at 30 weeks 1 day of gestation. At 39 weeks of gestation a cesarean section was performed due to the recent procedure. Her delivery and postpartum period were without complications.

Discussion

Pituitary apoplexy presenting in pregnancy is a rare and potentially life-threatening disorder due to an acute ischemic infarction or hemorrhage of the pituitary gland. Surgical management of the pituitary gland in pregnancy is rarely recommended, except in cases of severe visual disturbance and uncontrolled Cushing's disease.

Presumed pituitary apoplexy in 26 dogs: Clinical findings, treatments, and outcomes

BACKGROUND

Pituitary apoplexy refers to hemorrhage or infarction within the pituitary gland resulting in acute neurological abnormalities. This condition is poorly described in dogs.

OBJECTIVES

To document presenting complaints, examination findings, endocrinopathies, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), treatments, and outcomes of dogs with pituitary apoplexy.

ANIMALS

Twenty-six client-owned dogs with acute onset of neurological dysfunction.

METHODS

Retrospective case series. Dogs were diagnosed with pituitary apoplexy if MRI or histopathology documented an intrasellar or suprasellar mass with evidence of hemorrhage or infarction in conjunction with acute neurological dysfunction. Clinical information was obtained from medical records and imaging reports.

RESULTS

Common presenting complaints included altered mentation (16/26, 62%) and gastrointestinal dysfunction (14/26, 54%). Gait or posture changes (22/26, 85%), mentation changes (18/26, 69%), cranial neuropathies (17/26, 65%), cervical or head hyperpathia (12/26, 46%), and hyperthermia (8/26, 31%) were the most frequent exam findings. Ten dogs (38%) lacked evidence of an endocrinopathy before presentation. Common MRI findings included T1-weighted hypo- to isointensity of the hemorrhagic lesion (21/25, 84%), peripheral enhancement of the pituitary mass lesion (15/25, 60%), brain herniation (14/25, 56%), and obstructive hydrocephalus (13/25, 52%). Fifteen dogs (58%) survived to hospital discharge. Seven of these dogs received medical management alone (median survival 143 days; range, 7-641 days) and 8 received medications and radiation therapy (median survival 973 days; range, 41-1719 days).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Dogs with pituitary apoplexy present with a variety of acute signs of neurological disease and inconsistent endocrine dysfunction. Dogs that survive to discharge can have a favorable outcome.

Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura Presenting with Pituitary Apoplexy: A Case Report and Literature Review

Background  Pituitary apoplexy is a rare condition that usually occurs in the setting of a pituitary adenoma. It can present with symptoms of visual disturbances, vertigo, headache, and neurological impairments. Computed tomography (CT) scans can aid in identifying pituitary apoplexy and ruling out other diseases. We present a unique case of pituitary apoplexy in the setting of immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP). Case Description  A 61-year-old man with a past medical history significant for myocardial infarction presented to the emergency department with symptoms of diplopia and headache 36 hours after onset. The patient was found to have severe thrombocytopenia with a platelet count below 20,000. A CT of the head revealed a possible pituitary adenoma with compression of the optic chiasm. The patient's platelet count continued to decrease throughout his admission and dropped below 7,000 on day 2 of admission. The patient was given platelet transfusion along with intravenous immunoglobulins. The patient underwent endoscopic transsphenoidal resection of the pituitary mass. Pathology of the mass revealed immature platelets characteristic of immune ITP in the setting of pituitary apoplexy. Conclusion  While ITP in the setting of pituitary apoplexy is a rare entity, we believe that clinicians should have pituitary apoplexy on their differential diagnosis in patients with ITP.

Pituitary Apoplexy in Patients with Pituitary Neuroendocrine Tumors (PitNET)

Various complications of pituitary neuroendocrine tumors (PitNET) are reported, and an intratumor hemorrhage or infarct underlying pituitary apoplexy (PA) represents an uncommon, yet potentially life-threatening, feature, and thus early recognition and prompt intervention are important. Our purpose is to overview PA from clinical presentation to management and outcome. This is a narrative review of the English-language, PubMed-based original articles from 2012 to 2022 concerning PA, with the exception of pregnancy- and COVID-19-associated PA, and non-spontaneous PA (prior specific therapy for PitNET). We identified 194 original papers including 1452 patients with PA (926 males, 525 females, and one transgender male; a male-to-female ratio of 1.76; mean age at PA diagnostic of 50.52 years, the youngest being 9, the oldest being 85). Clinical presentation included severe headache in the majority of cases (but some exceptions are registered, as well); neuro-ophthalmic panel with nausea and vomiting, meningism, and cerebral ischemia; respectively, decreased visual acuity to complete blindness in two cases; visual field defects: hemianopia, cranial nerve palsies manifesting as diplopia in the majority, followed by ptosis and ophthalmoplegia (most frequent cranial nerve affected was the oculomotor nerve, and, rarely, abducens and trochlear); proptosis (N = 2 cases). Risk factors are high blood pressure followed by diabetes mellitus as the main elements. Qualitative analysis also pointed out infections, trauma, hematologic conditions (thrombocytopenia, polycythemia), Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, and T3 thyrotoxicosis. Iatrogenic elements may be classified into three main categories: medication, diagnostic tests and techniques, and surgical procedures. The first group is dominated by anticoagulant and antiplatelet drugs; additionally, at a low level of statistical evidence, we mention androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer, chemotherapy, thyroxine therapy, oral contraceptives, and phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors. The second category includes a dexamethasone suppression test, clomiphene use, combined endocrine stimulation tests, and a regadenoson myocardial perfusion scan. The third category involves major surgery, laparoscopic surgery, coronary artery bypass surgery, mitral valvuloplasty, endonasal surgery, and lumbar fusion surgery in a prone position. PA in PitNETs still represents a challenging condition requiring a multidisciplinary team from first presentation to short- and long-term management. Controversies involve the specific panel of risk factors and adequate protocols with concern to neurosurgical decisions and their timing versus conservative approach. The present decade-based analysis, to our knowledge the largest so far on published cases, confirms a lack of unanimous approach and criteria of intervention, a large panel of circumstantial events, and potential triggers with different levels of statistical significance, in addition to a heterogeneous clinical picture (if any, as seen in subacute PA) and a spectrum of evolution that varies from spontaneous remission and control of PitNET-associated hormonal excess to exitus. Awareness is mandatory. A total of 25 cohorts have been published so far with more than 10 PA cases/studies, whereas the largest cohorts enrolled around 100 patients. Further studies are necessary.

Risk Factors, Radiological and Clinical Outcomes in Subclinical and Clinical Pituitary Apoplexy

BACKGROUND

Pituitary apoplexy (PA) can be symptomatic, namely acute apoplexy (APA), or asymptomatic or subclinical (SPA).

OBJECTIVE

To describe the clinical characteristics and evolution of the patients with APA compared to SPA Patients and methods: Retrospective, longitudinal database analysis.

RESULTS

We identified 58 patients with PA, and 37 accomplished the inclusion criteria (17 men, median age 47.7 years). A total of 29 (78.4%) had APA (17 underwent surgery, and 12 were conservatively managed), and 8 (21.6%) had SPA. The presence of non-functioning pituitary adenoma (NFPA) odds ratio (OR): 29.36 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.86-462.36) and the largest size OR 1.10 (95% CI: 1.01-1.2) elevated the risk of having surgery. Hypopituitarism developed in 35.1% without significant differences between APA and SPA. In non-surgical patients, adenoma volume shrunk spontaneously at one year magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), without statistical differences between the conservatively treated and SPA group.

CONCLUSIONS

APA is more frequent in larger NFPAs, and this subset of patients has a higher risk of surgery. Hypopituitarism is quite frequent even in patients with SPA, and, therefore, long-term follow-up is mandatory. In the non-surgical group, the pituitary tumour shrinkage is clinically relevant after one year of PA. Consequently, surgery indication in NFPA should be delayed and reassessed if patients remain asymptomatic.

Revisiting Pituitary Apoplexy

Pituitary apoplexy (PA) is a rare clinical syndrome due to pituitary hemorrhage or infarction. It is characterized by the sudden onset of one or more of the following: severe headache, visual disturbance, nausea/vomiting, and or altered mental status. Most commonly, PA occurs in an underlying pituitary adenoma. The pathophysiology is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve elements of increased metabolic demand and/or compromise to the vasculature of the pituitary or pituitary tumor. Several risk factors have been described. Stabilization of the patient on presentation, replacement of hormonal deficiencies, and reversal of electrolyte abnormalities are the recommended initial steps in the management of patients with PA. Surgical decompression of the mass effect had been the recommended treatment for patients with PA; however, retrospective studies of patients with PA have demonstrated similar outcomes when a conservative approach is applied. This suggests that in highly selected clinical scenarios (mild visual deficit and improving symptoms), conservative management is possible. Further studies, however, are necessary to better stratify patients but are limited by the rarity of the condition and the acuity.

Endocrinological aspects of pituitary adenoma surgery in Europe

Hormone-secreting adenomas are treated in many neurosurgical centers within Europe. The goal of the survey is to understand variance in practice management of pituitary tumors amongst neurosurgical centers. A list of departments performing pituitary surgery was created. The survey consisted of 58 questions. This study focuses on neurosurgical care of hormone-secreting adenomas. For analysis, the departments were divided into four subgroups: academic/non-academic, high-volume/low-volume, “mainly endoscopic/mainly microscopic practice” and geographical regions. Data from 254 departments from 34 countries were obtained. Most centers surgically treat 1–5 hormone-secreting adenomas per year. In prolactinomas this is the case in 194 centers, (76.4%), in GH-secreting adenomas: 133 centers, (52.4%), ACTH-secreting adenomas: 172 centers, (69.8%). Surgery as a primary treatment of prolactinomas is considered in 64 centers (25.2%). In 47 centers (18.8%), GH-secreting microadenomas are often treated pharmacologically first. Debulking surgery for an invasive GH-secreting adenoma in which hormonal remission is not a realistic goal of the surgery and the patient has no visual deficit surgery is always or mostly indicated in 156 centers (62.9%). Routine postoperative hydrocortisone replacement therapy is administered in 147 centers (58.6%). Our survey shows that in most centers, few hormone-secreting adenomas are treated per year. In about 25% of the centers, prolactinoma surgery may be regarded as first-line treatment; in about 20% of the centers, medical treatment is the first-line treatment for GH-secreting adenomas. Pretreatment for ACTH-secreting adenomas is routinely used in 21% of centers. This survey may serve as plea for neurosurgical care centralization of hormone-secreting adenomas.

Long-term oncological outcomes after haemorrhagic apoplexy in pituitary adenoma managed operatively and non-operatively

INTRODUCTION

Depending on severity of presentation, pituitary apoplexy can be managed with acute surgery or non-operatively. We aim to assess long-term tumour control, visual and endocrinological outcomes following pituitary apoplexy with special emphasis on patients treated non-operatively.

METHODS

Multicentre retrospective cohort study. All patients with symptomatic pituitary apoplexy were included. Patients were divided into 3 groups: group 1: surgery within 7 days; group 2: surgery 7 days-3 months; group 3: non-operative. Further intervention for oncological reasons during follow-up was the primary outcome. Secondary outcome measures included visual and endocrinological function at last follow-up.

RESULTS

One hundred sixty patients were identified with mean follow-up of 48 months (n = 61 group 1; n = 34 group 2; n = 64 group 3). Factors influencing decision for surgical treatment included visual acuity loss (OR: 2.50; 95% CI: 1.02-6.10), oculomotor nerve palsy (OR: 2.80; 95% CI: 1.08-7.25) and compression of chiasm on imaging (OR: 9.50; 95% CI: 2.06-43.73). Treatment for tumour progression/recurrence was required in 17%, 37% and 24% in groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively (p = 0.07). Urgent surgery (OR: 0.16; 95% CI: 0.04-0.59) and tumour regression on follow-up (OR: 0.04; 95% CI: 0.04-0.36) were independently associated with long-term tumour control. Visual and endocrinological outcomes were comparable between groups.

CONCLUSION

Urgent surgery is an independent predictor of long-term tumour control following pituitary apoplexy. However, 76% of patients who successfully complete 3 months of non-operative treatment may not require any intervention in the long term.

Ischemic Infarction of Pituitary Apoplexy: A Retrospective Study of 46 Cases From a Single Tertiary Center

Objective

Ischemic infarction of pituitary apoplexy (PA) is a rare type of pituitary apoplexy. This study aims to characterize ischemic PA via clinical presentations, imaging data, histopathological manifestations, and focus on the management and prognosis of the disease.

Methods

This study retrospectively identified 46 patients with ischemic PA confirmed using histopathology at a single institution from January 2013 to December 2020. The clinical presentations, imaging data, laboratory examination, management, and outcomes were collected. We then summarized the clinical presentations, imaging features, intraoperative findings, and histopathological manifestations, and compared the outcomes based on the timing of surgical intervention.

Results

Headache was the most common initial symptom (95.65%, 44/46), followed by visual disturbance (89.13%, 41/46), and nausea and vomiting (58.70%, 27/46). 91.3% of the patients had at least one pituitary dysfunction, with hypogonadism being the most common endocrine dysfunction (84.78%, 39/46). Cortisol dysfunction occurred in 24 (52.17%) patients and thyroid dysfunction occurred in 17 (36.96%). Typical rim enhancement and thickening of the sphenoid sinus on MRI were seen in 35 (85.37%) and 26 (56.52%) patients, respectively. Except for one patient with asymptomatic apoplexy, the remaining patients underwent early (≤ 1 week, 12 patients) and delayed (&gt; 1 week, 33 patients) transsphenoidal surgery. Total tumor resection was achieved in 27 patients and subtotal tumor resection in 19 patients. At surgery, cottage cheese–like necrosis was observed in 50% (23/46) of the patients. At the last follow-up of 5.5 ± 2.7 years, 92.68% (38/41) of the patients had gained a significant improvement in visual disturbance regardless of surgical timing, and 65% of the patients were still receiving long-term hormone replacement therapy.

Conclusion

Patients with ischemic PA can be accurately diagnosed by typical imaging characteristics preoperatively. The timing of surgical intervention does not significantly affect the resolution of neurological and endocrinological dysfunctions. Preoperative endocrine dysfunctions are common and usually appear to be poor after surgical intervention.

Outcome in pituitary apoplexy patients, stratified by delay between symptom appearance and surgery: A single center retrospective analysis

BACKGROUND

There are surgical and conservative management strategies in pituitary apoplexy patients. The use of both methods may lead to delayed surgery in the treatment of pituitary apoplexy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the surgical indications and outcomes of a series of patients with pituitary apoplexy according to delay between surgery and symptom onset.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed of 2711 cases with sellar pathologies treated with endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery in a single centre. Inclusion criteria were histopathological confirmation of haemorrhage or necrosis, acute onset and at least one of the following: symptoms of endocrine dysfunction; visual impairment; ophtalmoplegia; headache; or altered consciousness. Patients were divided into three groups based on the number of days from initial symptoms to surgery: early (1-7 day), delayed (8-21 days) and late (>21 day). The indication for and outcome of surgery was reviewed according to symptoms and timing of surgery.

RESULTS

Ninety-one patients with pituitary apoplexy underwent surgery. The median time from ictus until surgery was 16 days (1-120 days). Headache was the most common presenting symptom. Visual impairment and ophtalmoplegia were found in 26.4% and 23.1% of patients, respectively. Surgical intervention was successful in treatment of headache in 82 (97,6%) patients. In patients in the early or delayed groups a significant improvement was found between pre- and post-operative headache, ocular palsy, visual impairment, and hormone deficiencies. Patients in the late group also had a significant improvement in headache and visual symptoms after surgery.

CONCLUSION

Surgery was sufficient in headache, endocrine, and neuro-ophthalmic outcomes at first 21 days (early and delayed groups). Beyond 21 days (late group), surgery was not effective on recovery of pituitary function.

Case Report: Polyneuropathy Pituitary Apoplexy with Normal Perimetry and Initially Normal Neuroimaging

SIGNIFICANCE

Pituitary apoplexy is a syndrome with a varied appearance, which carries a significant risk of morbidity and mortality. It is important to recognize the potential numerous symptoms and clinical findings, urgently investigate with the proper neuroimaging tests, and coordinate care with the appropriate specialists without delay.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to describe a patient with worsening headache and ophthalmoparesis attributable to pituitary apoplexy who initially had reportedly a normal neuroimaging result and were diagnosed with migraine.

CASE REPORT

A 39-year-old Hispanic man with a history of migraine developed a new and worsening headache. He presented to a hospital emergency department where he underwent a non-contrast-enhanced computed tomography and MRI, whose results were subsequently interpreted as normal. His headache was attributed to migraine, and he was medicated as such and discharged. Three days later, he developed horizontal and vertical diplopia and sought a second opinion. His visual acuity and visual fields were normal. He manifested a right pupil-sparing, external partial cranial nerve III palsy and concurrent right sixth nerve palsy. He also complained of worsening headache and lethargy. He was immediately referred for contrast-enhanced MRI and magnetic resonance angiography with suspicion of pituitary apoplexy. Subsequent imaging revealed a hemorrhagic pituitary macroadenoma consistent with pituitary apoplexy that was expanding laterally into the right cavernous sinus. He underwent immediate neurosurgical surgical repair.

CONCLUSIONS

New or worsening headache with signs and symptoms of hypopituitarism should immediately be investigated for pituitary apoplexy. Other possible findings include involvement of cranial nerves III through VI because of cavernous sinus involvement and visual deficits if the optic chiasm or intracranial portion of the optic nerve is involved. However, growth may be lateral, and no visual deficits may be found, as in this case. Multiple concurrent cranial neuropathies should increase suspicion for cavernous sinus involvement.

Endoscopic Endonasal Transsphenoidal Approach for the Surgical Treatment of Pituitary Apoplexy and Clinical Outcomes

Purpose: This study investigated the clinical manifestations, surgical method, and treatment outcomes of patients with pituitary apoplexy and evaluated the safety and effectiveness of the endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal approach in the treatment of pituitary adenomas. Patients and methods: In this retrospective study, were analyzed the data of patients with symptomatic pituitary apoplexy who received surgical treatment by endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal approach from January 2017 to June 2020 at the Department of Neurosurgery of the First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College. Patients were followed up through outpatient visits and telephone interviews. Results: Data for 24 patients including 13 males and 11 females with an average age of 46.46 years were analyzed. Headache (83.33%) and visual disturbances (75.00%) were the most common preoperative manifestations. In the 24 patients, 21 (87.50%) tumors were completely removed and 3 (12.50%) were partly removed. Intractable headache improved in all patients over a mean follow-up time of 25.16 months, and postoperative improvement in visual acuity was achieved in 17 of 18 patients (94.44%) with vision defects. Four patients (16.67%) experienced transient urinary collapse after the operation. No intracranial infection, carotid artery injury, or death occurred. Conclusion: The endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal approach is a safe and effective method for the treatment of pituitary apoplexy.

Outcomes of pituitary apoplexy: a comparison of microadenomas and macroadenomas

PURPOSE

We aimed to assess clinical characteristics of apoplexy of pituitary microadenomas compared to macroadenomas.

METHODS

We retrieved clinical records of patients > 18 years old, hospitalized in Rambam hospital between January 2001 and October 2017, with pituitary apoplexy and follow-up of at least one year. We compared clinical course and outcomes of apoplexy between patients with microadenomas and macroadenomas, and between patients who received conservative or surgical treatment. Statistical analysis was done using Fisher's exact and Mann-Whitney tests.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven patients with pituitary apoplexy were included in the final analysis: mean age was 40.7 ± 12.5 years, 13(48%) were female, 7(26%) had microadenomas, and 21(78%) harbored clinically nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas. Upon admission, hyponatremia, random cortisol level of < 200 nmol/L, and secondary hypothyroidism, were evident in 6/20, 8/18, and 4/18 patients with macroadenoma and 1/5, 2/5, and 1/6 patients with microadenoma, respectively (P = 1.0). Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism was evident in 9/12 men with macroadenoma. In 12 macroadenoma patients, the tumor abutted the optic chiasm, of whom eight had visual field defects. Fifteen patients with macroadenoma and two with microadenoma underwent transsphenoidal surgery. Median follow-up was 3 years. At last follow-up visit, patients with microadenoma had lower rates of corticotropic deficiency or secondary hypothyroidism compared to macroadenoma patients (1/7 vs. 13/20 respectively, p = 0.033). Only two patients with macroadenomas had persistent visual field defects. Outcomes were comparable between conservative and surgical treatment groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Long term pituitary hormone deficiencies are more common in pituitary apoplexy patients with macroadenomas. Apoplexy of pituitary microadenoma carries a more favorable prognosis.

A Case of Nonapoplectic Pituitary Adenoma Presenting with Isolated Oculomotor Nerve Palsy

We report a rare case of nonapoplectic pituitary adenoma that did not invade the cavernous sinus and was associated with isolated oculomotor nerve palsy. A 61-year-old male was admitted to our hospital due to diplopia that had gradually worsened from 6 months to presentation. He was diagnosed with right oculomotor nerve palsy, and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a mass lesion within the sella. The tumor was homogeneously enhanced on contrast-enhanced MRI. However, no findings suggestive of pituitary apoplexy were found. Brain computed tomography revealed the tumor to have eroded the right side of the posterior clinoid process by gradual expansion. Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery was used for complete resection of the tumor. Intraoperative findings showed that the tumor did not invade the cavernous sinus. The histological diagnosis was pituitary adenoma, and symptom improvement was observed from the early postoperative stage onward. Surgical treatment is essential because oculomotor nerve palsy caused by the enlargement of pituitary adenoma is not expected to resolve if treated conservatively, unlike that caused by pituitary apoplexy.

Diabetes insipidus and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis (SIADH) after pituitary surgery: incidence and risk factors

Electrolyte disorders are relatively frequent and potentially serious complications after pituitary surgery. Both DI (diabetes insipidus) and SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis) can complicate and prolong hospital and intensive care unit stay, and the latter may even be preventable. We aim to assess the incidence of both electrolyte disorders and their risk factors. From a prospective registry of patients who underwent endoscopic transnasal transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) for pituitary adenoma, patients with postoperative DI and SIADH were identified. Univariable and multivariable statistics were carried out to identify factors independently associated with the occurrence of either DI or SIADH. A total of 174 patients were included, of which 73 (42%) were female. Mean age was 54 years (range 20-88). During postoperative hospital stay, 13 (7.5%) patients presenting with DI and 11 (6.3%) with SIADH were identified. Patients who developed DI after surgery had significantly longer hospital stays (p = 0.022), as did those who developed SIADH (p = 0.002). Four (2.3%) patients were discharged with a diagnosis of persistent DI, and 2 (1.1%) with the diagnosis of SIADH. At the last follow-up, 5 (2.9%) patients presented with persistent DI, while none of the patients suffered from SIADH. Younger age (odds ratio (OR) 0.97, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.94-1.01, p = 0.166) and pituitary apoplexy (OR 2.69, 95% CI 0.53-10.65, p = 0.184) were weakly associated with the occurrence of DI. We identified younger age (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.92-0.99, p = 0.045) and lower preoperative serum sodium (OR 0.83, 95% CI 0.71-0.95, p = 0.008) as independent risk factors for SIADH. Although we found a weak association among age, pituitary apoplexy, and the occurrence of DI, no independent predictor was identified for DI. For postoperative SIADH however, lower age and preoperative serum sodium were identified as significant predictors. None of these findings were sufficiently supported by preexisting literature. Both electrolyte disorders are exquisitely hard to predict preoperatively, and further research into their early detection and prevention is warranted.

The Effect of Timing of Surgery in Pituitary Apoplexy on Continuously Valued Visual Acuity

Background  Pituitary apoplexy is often treated urgently, but this is based on studies which assess vision categorically and dichotomizes the time interval between symptom onset and surgery which may introduce bias in measuring an association between the two. Objective  This study was aimed to assess for a relationship between continuously valued surgery delay and visual acuity recovery after pituitary apoplexy. Methods  In this retrospective study, all patients presenting with symptomatic pituitary apoplexy between 2004 and 2016 were identified from an institutional database. The primary endpoint was visual acuity improvement, measured as the difference in acuity from the pre- to postoperative period, and measured in Logarithm of the Minimal Angle of Resolution (LogMAR) units. Analysis was performed using continuous values of time delay and visual acuity to assess for an underlying association. Results  Thirty-two pituitary apoplexy patients were identified. Visual acuity deficits were reported in 81%. The median visual acuity was 0.35 LogMAR (Snellen's fraction 20/40) preoperatively, and 0.1 (20/25) postoperatively ( p  < 0.01). The time between symptom onset and surgery was not associated with improvement in visual acuity ( p  = 0.46). When the time delay and visual outcome were intentionally dichotomized, patients undergoing surgery within 2 days of symptom onset had 0.21 times the odds of a good visual outcome (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.04-1.05). Conclusion  When assessed as continuously valued measures, the time from symptom onset to surgical intervention and the improvement in visual acuity are not associated, although intentional dichotomization of data produced conflicting results.

Long-Term Outcomes of Pituitary Gland Preservation in Pituitary Macroadenoma Apoplexy: Case Series and Review of the Literature

Introduction  For patients presenting with neurological changes from pituitary tumor apoplexy, urgent surgical intervention is commonly performed for diagnosis, tumor resection, and optic apparatus decompression. Although identification and preservation of the pituitary gland during the time of surgery can be challenging, it may lead to improve endocrine outcomes. Methods  A retrospective case series of all patients with macroadenomas presenting with apoplexy at Loyola University Medical Center from 2016 to 2018 was studied. Demographic, radiographic, and intraoperative characteristics were collected including age, gender, comorbidities, presenting symptoms, preoperative size of pituitary adenoma, Knosp's grade, Hardy's grade, identification and/or preservation of the gland, pre- and postoperative hormonal levels, intraoperative and/or postoperative complications, and follow-up time. Results  A total of 68 patients underwent endoscopic endonasal surgery for resection of a macroadenoma. Among them, seven (10.2%) presented with apoplexy; five patients were male and two were female and presenting symptoms and signs included headache (100%), endocrinopathies (57%), visual acuity deficit (71%), visual field deficit (71%), and oculomotor palsy (57%). A gross-total resection rate was achieved in 86% of patients. Among them, 71% of patients obtained complete symptomatic neurological improvement. A statistically significant difference between gender and endocrine function was found, as no females and all males required some form of postoperative hormonal supplementation ( p  = 0.047) . Conclusion  Endoscopic endonasal resection of macroadenomas with sparing of the pituitary gland in the setting of apoplexy is safe and effective. Preservation of the normal gland led to no posterior pituitary dysfunction, and a statistically significant difference between gender and postoperative endocrinopathy was identified. Further studies with larger samples sizes are warranted.

Conservative treatment cures an elderly pituitary apoplexy patient with oculomotor paralysis and optic nerve compression: a case report and systematic review of the literature

Background

Whether conservative treatment or surgical management is the most appropriate treatment for pituitary apoplexy (PA) is controversial. In general, if severe symptoms of compression occur, such as oculomotor nerve palsy, neurosurgery is performed to relieve the compression of anatomical structures near the PA.

Case description

We describe the case of a 79-year-old man who was found to have an intrasellar pituitary incidentaloma. The tumor was discovered accidentally, during an investigation into the cause of his dizziness. Two months later, he suddenly developed headaches, left ophthalmoplegia, decreased vision, severe blepharoptosis and diplopia. He was diagnosed with PA and hypocortisolemia based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and blood tests, respectively. His symptoms of oculomotor palsy and optic nerve compression were serious, but his ophthalmological deficits were nonprogressive and his hormone levels improved through conservative treatment (hydrocortisone supplementation). Due to this older patient’s poor physical condition and serious coronary heart disease, after multidisciplinary consultation and according to his family’s wishes, we continued the conservative treatment and watched closely for any changes in the patient’s condition. After 6 months of conservative treatment, the patient’s symptoms of oculomotor nerve paralysis, pupil and vision defects completely disappeared, and no new complications occurred. Repeated MRI tests showed that the PA lesion gradually improved. The patient’s hypocortisolemia was completely relieved through oral supplementation with low-dose hydrocortisone.

Conclusion

In older PA patients who have surgical contraindications, even with symptoms of compression, such as oculomotor nerve palsy, according to the international guidelines, if conservative treatment is effective and the condition is not progressing, it is possible to monitor patients’ condition closely and continue conservative treatment, which may yield good results.

Clinical and biochemical characteristics of patients presenting with pituitary apoplexy

PURPOSE

To review the clinical and biochemical characteristics and clinical outcome of patients presenting with pituitary apoplexy to a tertiary centre.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the clinical features, predisposing factors, biochemistry and clinical outcome of patients presenting with pituitary apoplexy to Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust between 1991 to 2015.

RESULTS

We identified 64 patients with pituitary apoplexy (more complete clinical records were available in 52 patients). The median age at presentation was 46.7 years (IQR 31.5-57.0 years). Pituitary apoplexy was the first presentation of pituitary disease in 38/52 of patients and predisposing factors were identified in 28/52. Pituitary apoplexy predominantly occurred in patients with non-functioning pituitary adenomas (47/52). Headache was most commonly described as sudden-onset, severe, lateralising to the frontal or temporal regions. Symptoms of meningeal irritation were reported in 7/18 and visual abnormalities in 22/35. A pre-treatment serum cortisol <100nmol/l was recorded in 12/31 of patients. All patients with visual disturbance had some resolution of their visual symptoms whether managed surgically (14/14) or conservatively (5/5), although pituitary endocrine function did not fully recover in any patient.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, these data describe the clinical features of pituitary apoplexy to aid the clinician in diagnosing this rare emergency presentation of pituitary disease. Prospective multicentre studies of the presentation of pituitary apoplexy are required to further characterise presentation and outcomes.

The Outcomes of Pituitary Apoplexy with Conservative Treatment: Experiences at a Single Institution

OBJECTIVE

Pituitary apoplexy is an unpredictable complication caused by hemorrhage or infarction in a pituitary adenoma. We retrospectively analyzed the radiologic and clinical outcomes of patients with conservatively managed pituitary apoplexy.

METHODS

A total of 32 patients who had undergone conservative treatment with high-dose corticosteroid replacement were enrolled in this study. This cohort study consisted of 20 male and 12 female patients. The median patient age was 60 years. Five patients had a previously diagnosed pituitary tumor, and one third of the patients had a history of hypertension.

RESULTS

The median follow-up duration was 50 months. The median tumor volumes at the initial and final assessments were 2.75 cm³ (range, 0.32-10.7 cm³) and 0.64 cm³ (range, 0-8.74 cm³), respectively. Complete radiographic regression occurred in 9 of the 32 patients, partial regression occurred in 14 patients, and no change in size or progression occurred in 9 patients. Eighteen of the 32 patients had visual disturbances at the initial presentation; in this subgroup, 17 patients showed improvement over the course of the study. One patient had newly developed diplopia related to tumor progression. Nineteen of the 32 patients had ≥1 hormonal deficiency at the initial assessment, 8 of whom recovered to normal endocrine status. Three patients developed a new hormonal deficiency during the follow-up, and 3 patients experienced tumor recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed the regression of tumors related to pituitary apoplexy, with favorable ophthalmologic and endocrinologic recovery. Conservative management should be considered in patients without severe or progressive neuro-ophthalmic deficits.

Apoplexy in nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas

Pituitary apoplexy is an uncommon event, occurring due to the infarction and/or haemorrhage usually of a previously unknown pituitary adenoma. It can occur in all adenoma subtypes but is more common in nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas. The physiopathology is not completely clear, and precipitating factors, such as major surgeries, anticoagulant use or pituitary dynamic tests, can be found in up to 40% of patients. The clinical presentation is characterized by a rapid onset with a headache as the main symptom, but visual disturbances can also be present as well as meningism and intracranial hypertension. The diagnosis is based on imaging evaluations, mainly using magnetic resonance imaging, which can show various patterns depending on the timeframe following the occurrence of the apoplectic event. Pituitary hormonal deficits are also common, and the evaluation of hormonal levels is mandatory. Pituitary apoplexy can be managed by surgery or conservative treatment, and a multidisciplinary team is essential for the decision-making process. The outcome is usually positive with both surgical and conservative approaches, but surveillance is needed due to the risk of re-bleeding or tumour recurrence.