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Wang S, Xie S, Zheng Q, Zhang Z, Wang T, Zhang G. Biofluid biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2024; 16:1380237. [PMID: 38659704 PMCID: PMC11039951 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2024.1380237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease, with a complex pathogenesis and an irreversible course. Therefore, the early diagnosis of AD is particularly important for the intervention, prevention, and treatment of the disease. Based on the different pathophysiological mechanisms of AD, the research progress of biofluid biomarkers are classified and reviewed. In the end, the challenges and perspectives of future research are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sensen Wang
- Shandong Yinfeng Academy of Life Science, Jinan, Shandong, China
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Sitan Xie
- Shandong Yinfeng Academy of Life Science, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Qinpin Zheng
- Shandong Yinfeng Academy of Life Science, Jinan, Shandong, China
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Zhihui Zhang
- Shandong Yinfeng Academy of Life Science, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Tian Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Guirong Zhang
- Shandong Yinfeng Academy of Life Science, Jinan, Shandong, China
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong, China
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3
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Matynia A, Recio BS, Myers Z, Parikh S, Goit RK, Brecha NC, Pérez de Sevilla Müller L. Preservation of Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs) in Late Adult Mice: Implications as a Potential Biomarker for Early Onset Ocular Degenerative Diseases. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2024; 65:28. [PMID: 38224335 PMCID: PMC10793389 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.65.1.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) play a crucial role in non-image-forming visual functions. Given their significant loss observed in various ocular degenerative diseases at early stages, this study aimed to assess changes in both the morphology and associated behavioral functions of ipRGCs in mice between 6 (mature) and 12 (late adult) months old. The findings contribute to understanding the preservation of ipRGCs in late adults and their potential as a biomarker for early ocular degenerative diseases. Methods Female and male C57BL/6J mice were used to assess the behavioral consequences of aging to mature and old adults, including pupillary light reflex, light aversion, visual acuity, and contrast sensitivity. Immunohistochemistry on retinal wholemounts from these mice was then conducted to evaluate ipRGC dendritic morphology in the ganglion cell layer (GCL) and inner nuclear layer (INL). Results Morphological analysis showed that ipRGC dendritic field complexity was remarkably stable through 12 months old of age. Similarly, the pupillary light reflex, visual acuity, and contrast sensitivity were stable in mature and old adults. Although alterations were observed in ipRGC-independent light aversion distinct from the pupillary light reflex, aged wild-type mice continuously showed enhanced light aversion with dilation. No effect of sex was observed in any tests. Conclusions The preservation of both ipRGC morphology and function highlights the potential of ipRGC-mediated function as a valuable biomarker for ocular diseases characterized by early ipRGC loss. The consistent stability of ipRGCs in mature and old adult mice suggests that detected changes in ipRGC-mediated functions could serve as early indicators or diagnostic tools for early-onset conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and diabetes, where ipRGC loss has been documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Matynia
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jules Stein Eye Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Brandy S. Recio
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Zachary Myers
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Sachin Parikh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jules Stein Eye Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Rajesh Kumar Goit
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jules Stein Eye Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Nicholas C. Brecha
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jules Stein Eye Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Luis Pérez de Sevilla Müller
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
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7
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Invitto S, Boscolo-Rizzo P, Fantin F, Bonifati DM, de Filippis C, Emanuelli E, Frezza D, Giopato F, Caggiula M, Schito A, Ciccarese V, Spinato G. Exploratory Study on Chemosensory Event-Related Potentials in Long COVID-19 and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Common Pathway? Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:bioengineering10030376. [PMID: 36978767 PMCID: PMC10045951 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10030376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
People affected by the Long COVID-19 (LC) syndrome often show clinical manifestations that are similar to those observed in patients with mild cognitive impairments (MCI), such as olfactory dysfunction (OD), brain fog, and cognitive and attentional diseases. This study aimed to investigate the chemosensory-evoked related potentials (CSERP) in LC and MCI to understand if there is a common pathway for the similarity of symptoms associated with these disorders. Eighteen LC patients (mean age 53; s.d. = 7), 12 patients diagnosed with MCI (mean age 67; s.d. = 6), and 10 healthy control subjects (mean age 66; s.d. = 5, 7) were recruited for this exploratory study. All of them performed a chemosensory event-related potentials (CSERP) task with the administration of trigeminal stimulations (e.g., the odorants cinnamaldehyde and eucalyptus). Study results highlighted that MCI and LC showed reduced N1 amplitude, particularly in the left frontoparietal network, involved in working memory and attentional deficits, and a reduction of P3 latency in LC. This study lays the foundations for evaluating aspects of LC as a process that could trigger long-term functional alterations, and CSERPs could be considered valid biomarkers for assessing the progress of OD and an indicator of other impairments (e.g., attentional and cognitive impairments), as they occur in MCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Invitto
- INSPIRE Lab, Laboratory on Cognitive and Psychophysiological Olfactory Processing, DiSTeBA, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Paolo Boscolo-Rizzo
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, Section of Otolaryngology, University of Trieste, 34123 Trieste, Italy
| | - Francesco Fantin
- Department of Neuroscience DNS, Audiology Unit at Treviso Hospital, University of Padova, 31100 Treviso, Italy
| | - Domenico Marco Bonifati
- Unit of Neurology, Department of Neuro-Cardio-Vascular, Ca' Foncello Hospital, 31100 Treviso, Italy
| | - Cosimo de Filippis
- Department of Neuroscience DNS, University of Padova, Audiology and Phoniatrics Unit, Ca' Foncello Hospital, 31100 Treviso, Italy
| | - Enzo Emanuelli
- Otolaringology Unit, Ca' Foncello Hospital, Local Health Unit N.2 "Marca Trevigiana", 31100 Treviso, Italy
| | - Daniele Frezza
- Otolaringology Unit, Ca' Foncello Hospital, Local Health Unit N.2 "Marca Trevigiana", 31100 Treviso, Italy
| | - Federico Giopato
- Unit of Neurology, Department of Neuro-Cardio-Vascular, Ca' Foncello Hospital, 31100 Treviso, Italy
| | | | - Andrea Schito
- INSPIRE Lab, Laboratory on Cognitive and Psychophysiological Olfactory Processing, DiSTeBA, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
- Istituto Santa Chiara, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | | | - Giacomo Spinato
- Department of Neuroscience DNS, Section of Otorhinolaryngology, University of Padova, 35121 Padova, Italy
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8
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Quan M, Wang Q, Qin W, Wang W, Li F, Zhao T, Li T, Qiu Q, Cao S, Wang S, Wang Y, Jin H, Zhou A, Fang J, Jia L, Jia J. Shared and unique effects of ApoEε4 and pathogenic gene mutation on cognition and imaging in preclinical familial Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Res Ther 2023; 15:40. [PMID: 36850008 PMCID: PMC9972804 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-023-01192-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuropsychology and imaging changes have been reported in the preclinical stage of familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD). This study investigated the effects of APOEε4 and known pathogenic gene mutation on different cognitive domains and circuit imaging markers in preclinical FAD. METHODS One hundred thirty-nine asymptomatic subjects in FAD families, including 26 APOEε4 carriers, 17 APP and 20 PS1 mutation carriers, and 76 control subjects, went through a series of neuropsychological tests and MRI scanning. Test scores and imaging measures including volumes, diffusion indices, and functional connectivity (FC) of frontostriatal and hippocampus to posterior cingulate cortex pathways were compared between groups and analyzed for correlation. RESULTS Compared with controls, the APOEε4 group showed increased hippocampal volume and decreased FC of fronto-caudate pathway. The APP group showed increased recall scores in auditory verbal learning test, decreased fiber number, and increased radial diffusivity and FC of frontostriatal pathway. All three genetic groups showed decreased fractional anisotropy of hippocampus to posterior cingulate cortex pathway. These neuropsychological and imaging measures were able to discriminate genetic groups from controls, with areas under the curve from 0.733 to 0.837. Circuit imaging measures are differentially associated with scores in various cognitive scales in control and genetic groups. CONCLUSIONS There are neuropsychological and imaging changes in the preclinical stage of FAD, some of which are shared by APOEε4 and known pathogenic gene mutation, while some are unique to different genetic groups. These findings are helpful for the early identification of Alzheimer's disease and for developing generalized and individualized prevention and intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meina Quan
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Wang
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Qin
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Wang
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Fangyu Li
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Tan Zhao
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Tingting Li
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Qiongqiong Qiu
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Shuman Cao
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Shiyuan Wang
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Wang
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Hongmei Jin
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Aihong Zhou
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Jiliang Fang
- grid.464297.aGuang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Longfei Jia
- grid.413259.80000 0004 0632 3337Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XClinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XBeijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XCenter of Alzheimer’s Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China ,grid.419897.a0000 0004 0369 313XKey Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Jianping Jia
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China. .,National Center for Neurological Disorders and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China. .,Clinical Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Memory Impairment, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China. .,Beijing Key Laboratory of Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, Beijing, China. .,Center of Alzheimer's Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China. .,Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China.
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