Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy from the pediatric perspective

The multiple faces of autoimmune Addison's disease in children

Primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) is a rare medical condition, characterized by a deficiency in adrenal hormones. Although rare, PAI is a life-threatening disease requiring prompt recognition and treatment. However, symptoms of PAI are often non-specific and diagnosis can be challenging, causing frequent diagnostic delays. In adults, autoimmunity is the most common cause of PAI in industrialized countries, whereas in children, the most frequent etiology is represented by congenital defects of steroidogenesis and, in particular, by congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. A few recent case series from different countries have reported that autoimmunity is the second most common etiology of PAI in the pediatric age group. However, data on autoimmune PAI in children are still scant and the exact epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and long-term outcomes of this condition have yet to be defined. The scope of this review is to summarize the current knowledge on the etiology, presentation, and treatment of autoimmune PAI in childhood and to increase physicians' awareness of the signs that should raise an early suspicion of this condition.

Fahr's syndrome as a manifestation of autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome-1 and its unusual association with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder

Fahr's syndrome, also known as bilateral striopallidodendate calcinosis, is a rare inherited neurodegenerative illness characterized by abnormal calcium deposition in several areas of the brain, resulting in a wide range of neuropsychological symptoms. Fahr's syndrome, secondary to autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1, which includes adrenal insufficiency and mucocutaneous candidiasis in addition to hypoparathyroidism, is exceedingly rare. No case report has been documented to date to show the co-occurrence of Fahr's syndrome and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. Here, we discuss the case of a 30-year-old man with a previous history of seizures and symptoms of ectodermal dystrophy presented with seizures, left-sided hemiparesis, dysarthria, and other characteristics indicative of severe hypocalcemia. The neuroimaging findings strongly suggested Fahr's syndrome, with radiographic evidence of Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder as longitudinal extensive transverse myelitis in the cervical spinal cord, high titers of serum aquaporin-4 antibodies, and demyelinating neuropathy on nerve conduction studies. This distinct neuropsychological presentation and neuroimaging findings led to the diagnosis of Fahr's syndrome as a result of hypoparathyroidism caused by autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1 with cooccurrence of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. The patient's clinical symptoms improved considerably after he was treated based on a provisional diagnosis. The clinical importance of our case is significant for both neuropsychiatrists and endocrinologists, as autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome should be considered as the etiology of Fahr's syndrome. This case report also aims to report this unusual association of Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder with Fahr's syndrome to give the future prospective to know whether this association is incidental or there is a missing link between these two different disorders.

Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1: an Italian survey on 158 patients

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome type 1 (APS-1) is a rare recessive inherited disease, caused by AutoImmune Regulator (AIRE) gene mutations and characterized by three major manifestations: chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC), chronic hypoparathyroidism (CH) and Addison's disease (AD).

METHODS

Autoimmune conditions and associated autoantibodies (Abs) were analyzed in 158 Italian patients (103 females and 55 males; F/M 1.9/1) at the onset and during a follow-up of 23.7 ± 15.1 years. AIRE mutations were determined.

RESULTS

The prevalence of APS-1 was 2.6 cases/million (range 0.5-17 in different regions). At the onset 93% of patients presented with one or more components of the classical triad and 7% with other components. At the end of follow-up, 86.1% had CH, 77.2% AD, 74.7% CMC, 49.5% premature menopause, 29.7% autoimmune intestinal dysfunction, 27.8% autoimmune thyroid diseases, 25.9% autoimmune gastritis/pernicious anemia, 25.3% ectodermal dystrophy, 24% alopecia, 21.5% autoimmune hepatitis, 17% vitiligo, 13.3% cholelithiasis, 5.7% connective diseases, 4.4% asplenia, 2.5% celiac disease and 13.9% cancer. Overall, 991 diseases (6.3 diseases/patient) were found. Interferon-ω Abs (IFNωAbs) were positive in 91.1% of patients. Overall mortality was 14.6%. The AIRE mutation R139X was found in 21.3% of tested alleles, R257X in 11.8%, W78R in 11.4%, C322fsX372 in 8.8%, T16M in 6.2%, R203X in 4%, and A21V in 2.9%. Less frequent mutations were present in 12.9%, very rare in 9.6% while no mutations in 11% of the cases.

CONCLUSIONS

In Italy, APS-1 is a rare disorder presenting with the three major manifestations and associated with different AIRE gene mutations. IFNωAbs are markers of APS-1 and other organ-specific autoantibodies are markers of clinical, subclinical or potential autoimmune conditions.

Autoimmune Polyendocrinopathy-Candidiasis-Ectodermal Dystrophy in Two Siblings: Same Mutations but Very Different Phenotypes

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy–candidiasis–ectodermal dystrophy (APECED), caused by mutations in the AIRE gene, is mainly characterized by the triad of hypoparathyroidism, primary adrenocortical insufficiency and chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, but can include many other manifestations, with no currently clear genotype–phenotype correlation. We present the clinical features of two siblings, a male and a female, with the same mutations in the AIRE gene associated with two very different phenotypes. Interestingly, the brother recently experienced COVID-19 infection with pneumonia, complicated by hypertension, hypokalemia and hypercalcemia. Although APECED is a monogenic disease, its expressiveness can be extremely different. In addition to the genetic basis, epigenetic and environmental factors might influence the phenotypic expression, although their exact role remains to be elucidated.

Oral manifestations of systemic disease

While the majority of disorders of the mouth are centred upon the direct action of plaque, the oral tissues can be subject to change or damage as a consequence of disease that predominantly affects other body systems. Such oral manifestations of systemic disease can be highly variable in both frequency and presentation. As lifespan increases and medical care becomes ever more complex and effective it is likely that the numbers of individuals with oral manifestations of systemic disease will continue to rise. The present article provides a succinct review of oral manifestations of systemic disease. In view of this article being part of a wider BDJ themed issue on the subject of oral medicine, this review focuses upon oral mucosal and salivary gland disorders that may arise as a consequence of systemic disease.

Novel Findings into AIRE Genetics and Functioning: Clinical Implications

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy candidiasis ectodermal dystrophy (APECED), formerly known as autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1, is a paradigm of a monogenic autoimmune disease caused by mutations of a gene, named autoimmune regulator (AIRE). AIRE acts as a transcription regulator that promotes immunological central tolerance by inducing the ectopic thymic expression of many tissue-specific antigens. Although the syndrome is a monogenic disease, it is characterized by a wide variability of the clinical expression with no significant correlation between genotype and phenotype. Indeed, many aspects regarding the exact role of AIRE and APECED pathogenesis still remain unraveled. In the last decades, several studies in APECED and in its mouse experimental counterpart have revealed new insights on how immune system learns self-tolerance. Moreover, novel interesting findings have extended our understanding of AIRE's function and regulation thus improving our knowledge on the pathogenesis of APECED. In this review, we will summarize recent novelties on molecular mechanisms underlying the development of APECED and their clinical implications.

Cutaneous vasculitis in patients with autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1: report of a case and brief review of the literature

Background

Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1, also known as autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal-dystrophy, is a rare autosomal recessive disease due to pathogenic variants in the AIRE gene. Classic features of the syndrome are mucocutaneous candidiasis, chronic idiopathic hypoparathyroidism and Addison disease. However, other endocrine and non-endocrine components, may occur with a different prevalence. In addition to ectodermal features, which are quite common features of the disease, APS 1 patients may experience other types of skin alterations, such as vasculitic skin rash. An early diagnosis of APS 1 can be very challenging, due to the high clinical heterogeneity, and a considerable delay may occur between the appearance of symptoms and the diagnosis.

Case presentation

We report on a girl affected by APS 1 who presented with cutaneous vasculitis when she was seven-months old, some years before the onset of the common components of the disease.

Conclusion

Clinical picture of APS 1 may be characterized by isolated rare or atypical autoimmune or immune-mediated manifestations, even years before the onset of the classic components of the disease. Among these uncommon features, skin rashes of variable form and duration may occur, most of them being associated with histopathological features of vasculitis. Our case suggests that cutaneous vasculitis may represent a first sign of APS 1. The clinical significance of cutaneous vasculitis in the context of APS 1 is still debated. It may represent a rare, unusual, early component of the disease or a clinical manifestation secondarily related to the typical APS 1 components (i.e. autoimmune thyroid disease), which are frequently associated with rheumatologic-like signs and symptoms. Alternatively, it may be the expression of an independent disease co-occuring with APS 1. In conclusion, our case suggests that children presenting with unexplained vasculitic skin rash should be followed-up in order to early identify APS 1.

APECED: A Paradigm of Complex Interactions between Genetic Background and Susceptibility Factors

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) is a rare autosomal recessive disease, caused by mutations of a single gene named Autoimmune regulator gene (AIRE) which results in a failure of T-cell tolerance. Central tolerance takes place within the thymus and represents the mechanism by which potentially auto-reactive T-cells are eliminated through the negative selection process. The expression of tissue-specific antigens (TSAs) by medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) in the thymus is a key process in the central tolerance and is driven by the protein encoded by AIRE gene, the transcription factor autoimmune regulator (AIRE). A failure in this process caused by AIRE mutations is thought to be responsible of the systemic autoimmune reactions of APECED. APECED is characterized by several autoimmune endocrine and non-endocrine manifestations and the phenotype is often complex. Although APECED is the paradigm of a monogenic autoimmune disorder, it is characterized by a wide variability of the clinical expression even between siblings with the same genotype, thus implying that additional mechanisms, other than the failure of Aire function, are involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. Unraveling open issues of the molecular basis of APECED, will help improve diagnosis, management, and therapeutical strategies of this complex disease.