IL-2 promotes early Treg reconstitution after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation

Graft-Versus-Host Disease Mouse Models: A Clinical-Translational Perspective

A variety of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) models have been developed in mice for the purpose of allowing laboratory investigation of the pathobiology, prevention, and treatment of GVHD in humans. While such models are crucial in advancing our knowledge in this field, there are some key limitations that need to be considered when translating laboratory discoveries into the clinical context. This chapter will discuss current clinical practices in transplantation and GVHD and the relative strengths and weaknesses of mouse models that attempt to replicate these states.

Effect of IL-2 polymorphism rs2069762 on single-unit cord blood transplant outcomes

BACKGROUND

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is one of the most important cytokines that regulate the activation and proliferation of T cells and natural killer cells. The production of IL-2 may be affected by polymorphisms in the promoter region of the IL-2 gene (rs2069762). In allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) from adult donors, rs2069762 has been associated with the incidence of acute and chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). However, the impacts of IL-2 polymorphism on cord blood transplantation (CBT) outcomes remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to assess the impact of IL-2 polymorphism rs2069762 on transplant outcomes, such as hematopoietic recovery, GVHD, overall survival, relapse, and non-relapse mortality (NRM) after CBT.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a retrospective analysis of data from adult patients who underwent single-unit CBT at our institution from November 2005 to March 2023 for whom DNA samples from recipients and donors were available. IL-2 genotyping was performed using real-time polymerase chain reaction with the TaqMan® SNP genotyping assay for rs2069762.

RESULTS

A total of 143 recipient and donor pairs were included in this study. The proportion of recipient IL-2 polymorphism rs2069762 was 48 % (n = 69) for AA, 42 % (n = 60) for CA, and 10 % (n = 14) for CC. The proportion of donor IL-2 polymorphism rs2069762 was 43 % (n = 61) for AA, 48 % (n = 69) for CA, and 9 % (n = 13) for CC. In the multivariate analysis, the use of an rs2069762 CA + CC donor was associated with lower neutrophil recovery compared to an rs2069762 AA donor (hazard ratio [HR], 0.66; 95 % confidence interval [CI], 0.50-0.88; P = 0.004). Furthermore, recipients of rs2069762 CA + CC were associated with higher NRM compared to recipients of rs2069762 AA (HR, 2.32; 95 % CI, 1.01-5.34; P = 0.047). Serum IL-2 levels at 8 weeks were significantly higher in rs2069762 CA + CC recipients compared to those with rs2069762 AA recipients (P = 0.014).

CONCLUSION

Our data showed that donor IL-2 polymorphism affects neutrophil recovery and recipient IL-2 polymorphism affects NRM in adults undergoing single-unit CBT. The polymorphism of IL-2 rs2069762 in recipients and donors might be associated with the clinical outcomes of single-unit CBT.

Regulation of Treg cells by cytokine signaling and co-stimulatory molecules

CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), a vital component of the immune system, are responsible for maintaining immune homeostasis and preventing excessive immune responses. This review explores the signaling pathways of the cytokines that regulate Treg cells, including transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and IL-35, which foster the differentiation and enhance the immunosuppressive capabilities of Tregs. It also examines how, conversely, signals mediated by IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor -alpha (TNF-α) can undermine Treg suppressive functions or even drive their reprogramming into effector T cells. The B7 family comprises indispensable co-stimulators for T cell activation. Among its members, this review focuses on the capacity of CTLA-4 and PD-1 to regulate the differentiation, function, and survival of Tregs. As Tregs play an essential role in maintaining immune homeostasis, their dysfunction contributes to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. This review delves into the potential of employing Treg-based immunotherapy for the treatment of autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection, and cancer. By shedding light on these topics, this article aims to enhance our understanding of the regulation of Tregs by cytokines and their therapeutic potential for various pathological conditions.

International society for cell & gene therapy stem cell engineering committee: Cellular therapies for the treatment of graft-versus-host-disease after hematopoietic stem cell transplant

BACKGROUND AIMS

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant is a curative approach for many malignant and non-malignant hematologic conditions. Despite advances in its prevention and treatment, the morbidity and mortality related to graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) remains. The mechanisms by which currently used pharmacologic agents impair the activation and proliferation of potentially alloreactive T cells reveal pathways essential for the detrimental activities of these cell populations. Importantly, these same pathways can be important in mediating the graft-versus-leukemia effect in recipients transplanted for malignant disease. This knowledge informs potential roles for cellular therapies such as mesenchymal stromal cells and regulatory T cells in preventing or treating GVHD. This article reviews the current state of adoptive cellular therapies focused on GVHD treatment.

METHODS

We conducted a search for scientific literature in PubMed® and ongoing clinical trials in clinicaltrial.gov with the keywords "Graft-versus-Host Disease (GVHD)," "Cellular Therapies," "Regulatory T cells (Tregs)," "Mesenchymal Stromal (Stem) Cells (MSCs)," "Natural Killer (NK) Cells," "Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs)," and "Regulatory B-Cells (B-regs)." All the published and available clinical studies were included.

RESULTS

Although most of the existing clinical data focus on cellular therapies for GVHD prevention, there are observational and interventional clinical studies that explore the potential for cellular therapies to be safe modalities for GVHD treatment while maintaining the graft-versus-leukemia effect in the context of malignant diseases. However, there are multiple challenges that limit the broader use of these approaches in the clinical scenario.

CONCLUSIONS

There are many ongoing clinical trials to date with the promise to expand our actual knowledge on the role of cellular therapies for GVHD treatment in an attempt to improve GVHD-related outcomes in the near future.

Emerging translational strategies and challenges for enhancing regulatory T cell therapy for graft-versus-host disease

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is a curative therapy for many types of cancer. Genetic disparities between donor and host can result in immune-mediated attack of host tissues, known as graft versus host disease (GVHD), a major cause of morbidity and mortality following HSCT. Regulatory CD4+ T cells (Tregs) are a rare cell type crucial for immune system homeostasis, limiting the activation and differentiation of effector T cells (Teff) that are self-reactive or stimulated by foreign antigen exposure. Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) with Treg has demonstrated, first in murine models and now in patients, that prophylactic Treg infusion can also suppress GVHD. While clinical trials have demonstrated Treg reduce severe GVHD occurrence, several impediments remain, including Treg variability and practical need for individualized Treg production for each patient. Additionally, there are challenges in the use of in vitro expansion techniques and in achieving in vivo Treg persistence in context of both immune suppressive drugs and in lymphoreplete patients being treated for GVHD. This review will focus on 3 main translational approaches taken to improve the efficacy of tTreg ACT in GVHD prophylaxis and development of treatment options, following HSCT: genetic modification, manipulating TCR and cytokine signaling, and Treg production protocols. In vitro expansion for Treg ACT presents a multitude of approaches for gene modification to improve efficacy, including: antigen specificity, tissue targeting, deletion of negative regulators/exhaustion markers, resistance to immunosuppressive drugs common in GVHD treatment. Such expansion is particularly important in patients without significant lymphopenia that can drive Treg expansion, enabling a favorable Treg:Teff ratio in vivo. Several potential therapeutics have also been identified that enhance tTreg stability or persistence/expansion following ACT that target specific pathways, including: DNA/histone methylation status, TCR/co-stimulation signaling, and IL-2/STAT5 signaling. Finally, this review will discuss improvements in Treg production related to tissue source, Treg subsets, therapeutic approaches to increase Treg suppression and stability during tTreg expansion, and potential for storing large numbers of Treg from a single production run to be used as an off-the-shelf infusion product capable of treating multiple recipients.

Recipient Tregs: Can They Be Exploited for Successful Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Outcomes?

Human and mouse CD4⁺FoxP3⁺ T cells (Tregs) comprise non-redundant regulatory compartments which maintain self-tolerance and have been found to be of potential therapeutic usefulness in autoimmune disorders and transplants including allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT). There is substantial literature interrogating the application of donor derived Tregs for the prevention of graft versus host disease (GVHD). This Mini-Review will focus on the recipient's Tregs which persist post-transplant. Although treatment in patients with low dose IL-2 months post-HSCT are encouraging, manipulating Tregs in recipients early post-transplant is challenging, in part likely an indirect consequence of damage to the microenvironment required to support Treg expansion of which little is understood. This review will discuss the potential for manipulating recipient Tregs in vivo prior to and after HSCT (fusion proteins, mAbs). Strategies that would circumvent donor/recipient peripheral blood harvest, cell culture and ex-vivo Treg expansion will be considered for the translational application of Tregs to improve HSCT outcomes.

Using stroma-anchoring cytokines to augment ADCC: a phase 1 trial of F16IL2 and BI 836858 for posttransplant AML relapse

Natural killer (NK) cells are key effectors in cancer immunosurveillance and posttransplant immunity, but deficiency of environmental signals and insufficient tumor recognition may limit their activity. We hypothesized that the antibody-mediated anchoring of interleukin-2 (IL-2) to a spliced isoform of the extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoprotein tenascin-C would potentiate NK cell-mediated antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) against leukemic blasts. In this novel-novel combination, dose-escalation phase 1 trial, we enrolled patients with posttransplant acute myeloid leukemia (AML) relapse to evaluate the safety, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and preliminary activity of the antibody-cytokine fusion F16IL2 (10-20x106 IU IV, days 1, 8, 15, and 22 of 28-day cycles) in combination with the anti-CD33 antibody BI 836858 (10-40 mg IV, 2 days after each F16IL2 infusion). Among 15 patients (median [range] age, 50 [20-68] years) treated across 4 dose levels (DL), 6 (40%) had received 2 or 3 prior transplantations. The most frequent adverse events were pyrexia, chills and infusion-related reactions, which were manageable, transient and of grade ≤ 2. One dose-limiting toxicity occurred at each of DL 3 (pulmonary edema) and 4 (GVHD). Three objective responses were observed among 7 patients treated at the 2 higher DL, whereas no responses occurred at the 2 starting DL. Combination therapy stimulated the expansion and activation of NK cells, including those expressing the FcγRIIIA/CD16 receptor. ECM-targeted IL-2 combined with anti-CD33 immunotherapy represents an innovative approach associated with acceptable safety and encouraging biologic and clinical activity in posttransplant AML relapse. This trial was registered at EudraCT (2015-004763-37).

Expression of Interleukin-2 receptor subunit gamma (IL-2Rγ) and its binding with IL-2 induced activation of CD4 T lymphocytes in flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

Interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R), as the specific ligand of interleukin-2 (IL-2), binds to IL-2 and transmits signals and then can induce the proliferation of T lymphocytes in mammals. In this paper, the subunit of IL-2R in flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), interleukin-2 receptor subunit gamma (IL-2Rγ) was cloned, and polyclonal antibodies (Abs) against its extracellular region were produced, then the expression of flounder IL-2Rγ (fIL-2Rγ) at transcriptional and cellular levels were characterized. Moreover, the interaction of flounder IL-2 (fIL-2) with fIL-2Rγ was investigated, and the variations on CD4+/IL-2Rγ+ cells in flounder after treatment with recombinant IL-2 (rIL-2), anti-IL-2Rγ Abs were detected, respectively. The results showed that fIL-2Rγ protein had a typical fibronectin type III (FN3) domain. The Abs could specifically recognize native fIL-2Rγ molecules at 39.9 kDa. FIL-2Rγ was localized on both T and B lymphocytes, and the percentages of CD4+/IL-2Rγ+ and IgM+/IL-2Rγ+ lymphocytes were high in spleen. In addition, pBiFC-VN173-IL-2Rγ plasmids could bind to pBiFC-VC155-IL-2 plasmids. The percentage of CD4+/IL-2Rγ+ lymphocytes was significantly decreased after blocking with anti-IL-2Rγ Abs both in vivo and in vitro. In the meantime, four T cell markers genes and six IL-2-IL-2R pathway genes were down-regulated in anti-IL-2Rγ Abs group. These results first demonstrated that fIL-2Rγ molecules were expressed on both T and B lymphocytes in flounder, and the bond between fIL-2Rγ and fIL-2 activated the CD4 T lymphocytes. This study gave a new sight into the exploration of IL-2R function on T lymphocytes proliferation in fish.

T Helper Cell Lineage-Defining Transcription Factors: Potent Targets for Specific GVHD Therapy?

Allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) represents a potent and potentially curative treatment for many hematopoietic malignancies and hematologic disorders in adults and children. The donor-derived immunity, elicited by the stem cell transplant, can prevent disease relapse but is also responsible for the induction of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). The pathophysiology of acute GVHD is not completely understood yet. In general, acute GVHD is driven by the inflammatory and cytotoxic effect of alloreactive donor T cells. Since several experimental approaches indicate that CD4 T cells play an important role in initiation and progression of acute GVHD, the contribution of the different CD4 T helper (Th) cell subtypes in the pathomechanism and regulation of the disease is a central point of current research. Th lineages derive from naïve CD4 T cell progenitors and lineage commitment is initiated by the surrounding cytokine milieu and subsequent changes in the transcription factor (TF) profile. Each T cell subtype has its own effector characteristics, immunologic function, and lineage specific cytokine profile, leading to the association with different immune responses and diseases. Acute GVHD is thought to be mainly driven by the Th1/Th17 axis, whereas Treg cells are attributed to attenuate GVHD effects. As the differentiation of each Th subset highly depends on the specific composition of activating and repressing TFs, these present a potent target to alter the Th cell landscape towards a GVHD-ameliorating direction, e.g. by inhibiting Th1 and Th17 differentiation. The finding, that targeting of Th1 and Th17 differentiation appears more effective for GVHD-prevention than a strategy to inhibit Th1 and Th17 cytokines supports this concept. In this review, we shed light on the current advances of potent TF inhibitors to alter Th cell differentiation and consecutively attenuate GVHD. We will focus especially on preclinical studies and outcomes of TF inhibition in murine GVHD models. Finally, we will point out the possible impact of a Th cell subset-specific immune modulation in context of GVHD.

N6 -methyladenosine RNA methylation: A novel regulator of the development and function of immune cells

N⁶ -methyladenosine (m⁶ A) RNA methylation is a reversible posttranscriptional modification in eukaryotes involving three types of functional proteins: "writers", "erasers", and "readers". m⁶ A regulates the metabolism of messenger RNAs and noncoding RNAs through RNA structure, splicing, stability, export, and translation, thereby participating in various physiological and pathological processes. Here, we summarize the current state of m⁶ A methylation researches, focusing on how these modifications modulate the fate decisions of innate and adaptive immune cells and regulate immune responses in immune-associated diseases, including viral infections and cancer. These studies showed that m⁶ A modifications and m⁶ A modifying proteins play a critical role in pathogen recognition, immune cell activation, immune cell fate decisions, and immune reactions. m⁶ A is a novel regulator of immune system homeostasis and activation.

New therapeutic targets and biomarkers for acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)

INTRODUCTION

Acute Graft-versus-Host Disease (GVHD) is the major toxicity of allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). Systemic steroids are the standard primary treatment but only half of the patients will respond completely and the survival of steroid-refractory patients is poor. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a key target organ that usually determines a patient's response to therapy.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the use of clinical grading systems and biomarkers in GVHD treatment and highlights pathophysiologic phases of acute GVHD as context for the mechanisms of action and therapeutic targets of various approaches. We reviewed >100 publications and performed a search of ongoing, current clinical trials on the emerging therapeutic targets for prophylaxis and treatment of acute GVHD. Search databases included clinicaltrials.gov and PUBMED. Search terms and keywords included 'acute graft-versus-host disease,' 'GVHD,' 'graft versus host,' 'treatment.'

EXPERT OPINION

Future strategies will employ a risk-adapted therapy using biomarkers, which more accurately predict 6-month NRM. Strategies for high-risk patients will inhibit GI tract damage by selective targeting of effectors (e.g. inhibition of JAK signaling in T cells), blockade of trafficking through mAbs against integrin receptors, or enhancement of target cell survival. Future strategieswill reduce immunosuppression to avoid risk of infections and relapse.

Immunomodulatory Therapies for the Treatment of Graft-versus-host Disease

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HCT) is a potentially curative therapy for patients suffering from hematological malignancies, and its therapeutic success is based on the graft-versus-leukemia (GvL) effect. Severe acute and chronic graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) are life-threatening complications after allo-HCT. To date, most of the approved treatment strategies for GvHD rely on broadly immunosuppressive regimens, which limit the beneficial GvL effect by reducing the cytotoxicity of anti-leukemia donor T-cells. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies that rely on immunomodulatory rather than only immunosuppressive effects could help to improve patient outcomes. Treatments should suppress severe GvHD while preserving anti-leukemia immunity. New treatment strategies include the blockade of T-cell activation via inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 and cluster of differentiation 28-mediated co-stimulation, reduction of proinflammatory interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α signaling, as well as kinase inhibition. Janus kinase (JAK)1/2 inhibition acts directly on T-cells, but also renders antigen presenting cells more tolerogenic and blocks dendritic cell-mediated T-cell activation and proliferation. Extracorporeal photopheresis, hypomethylating agent application, and low-dose IL-2 are powerful approaches to render the immune response more tolerogenic by regulatory T-cell induction. The transfer of immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive cell populations, including mesenchymal stromal cells and regulatory T-cells, showed promising results in GvHD treatment. Novel experimental procedures are based on metabolic reprogramming of donor T-cells by reducing glycolysis, which is crucial for cytotoxic T-cell proliferation and activity.

Post-transplant cyclophosphamide limits reactive donor T cells and delays the development of graft-versus-host disease in a humanized mouse model

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a major complication of allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) that develops when donor T cells in the graft become reactive against the host. Post-transplant cyclophosphamide (PTCy) is increasingly used in mismatched allo-HSCT, but how PTCy impacts donor T cells and reduces GVHD is unclear. This study aimed to determine the effect of PTCy on reactive human donor T cells and GVHD development in a preclinical humanized mouse model. Immunodeficient NOD-scid-IL2Rγ^null mice were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with 20 × 10⁶ human peripheral blood mononuclear cells stained with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) (day 0). Mice were subsequently injected (i.p.) with PTCy (33 mg kg^-1 ) (PTCy-mice) or saline (saline-mice) (days 3 and 4). Mice were assessed for T-cell depletion on day 6 and monitored for GVHD for up to 10 weeks. Flow cytometric analysis of livers at day 6 revealed lower proportions of reactive (CFSE^low ) human (h) CD3⁺ T cells in PTCy-mice compared with saline-mice. Over 10 weeks, PTCy-mice showed reduced weight loss and clinical GVHD, with prolonged survival and reduced histological liver GVHD compared with saline-mice. PTCy-mice also demonstrated increased splenic hCD4⁺ :hCD8⁺ T-cell ratios and reduced splenic Tregs (hCD4⁺  hCD25⁺  hCD127^lo ) compared with saline-mice. This study demonstrates that PTCy reduces GVHD in a preclinical humanized mouse model. This corresponded to depletion of reactive human donor T cells, but fewer human Tregs.

A combination of cyclophosphamide and interleukin-2 allows CD4+ T cells converted to Tregs to control scurfy syndrome

Immunodysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked (IPEX) syndrome is caused by mutations in forkhead box P3 (FOXP3), which lead to the loss of function of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and the development of autoimmune manifestations early in life. The selective induction of a Treg program in autologous CD4+ T cells by FOXP3 gene transfer is a promising approach for curing IPEX. We have established a novel in vivo assay of Treg functionality, based on adoptive transfer of these cells into scurfy mice (an animal model of IPEX) and a combination of cyclophosphamide (Cy) conditioning and interleukin-2 (IL-2) treatment. This model highlighted the possibility of rescuing scurfy disease after the latter's onset. By using this in vivo model and an optimized lentiviral vector expressing human Foxp3 and, as a reporter, a truncated form of the low-affinity nerve growth factor receptor (ΔLNGFR), we demonstrated that the adoptive transfer of FOXP3-transduced scurfy CD4+ T cells enabled the long-term rescue of scurfy autoimmune disease. The efficiency was similar to that seen with wild-type Tregs. After in vivo expansion, the converted CD4FOXP3 cells recapitulated the transcriptomic core signature for Tregs. These findings demonstrate that FOXP3 expression converts CD4+ T cells into functional Tregs capable of controlling severe autoimmune disease.

Hybrid cytokine IL233 renders protection in murine acute graft vs host disease (aGVHD)

Previously, we generated IL233, a hybrid cytokine composed of interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-33, with better therapeutic potential than either cytokine in multiple inflammatory diseases, in part through promoting T-regulatory cells (Tregs). Here we test the potential of IL233 pretreatment in a murine model of excessive Th1 activation, the parent-into-F1 model of acute GVHD (aGVHD). Five days of IL233 pretreatment of the recipients blocked or delayed the aGVHD-linked loss of B cells as seen in either the peripheral blood (day-11) or lymph nodes (day-14). IL233 pretreatment also prevented the expansion of donor CD8 T-cells in blood and LN at day-14 and significantly reduced day-14 serum IFNγ and TNFα compared to saline treated GVHD mice although, the level of Tregs did not statistically differ between saline and IL233-treated mice. Overall, the current study provides support for the use of IL233 as a therapeutic option in excessive Th1/CD8-driven conditions.

Pacritinib Combined with Sirolimus and Low-Dose Tacrolimus for GVHD Prevention after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation: Preclinical and Phase I Trial Results

PURPOSE

In this first-in-human, phase I, GVHD prevention trial (NCT02891603), we combine pacritinib (PAC), a JAK2 inhibitor, with sirolimus to concurrently reduce T-cell costimulation via mTOR and IL6 activity. We evaluate the safety of pacritinib when administered with sirolimus plus low-dose tacrolimus (PAC/SIR/TAC) after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The preclinical efficacy and immune modulation of PAC/SIR were investigated in xenogeneic GVHD. Our phase I trial followed a 3+3 dose-escalation design, including dose level 1 (pacritinib 100 mg daily), level 2 (pacritinib 100 mg twice daily), and level 3 (pacritinib 200 mg twice daily). The primary endpoint was to identify the lowest biologically active and safe dose of pacritinib with SIR/TAC (n = 12). Acute GVHD was scored through day +100. Allografts included 8/8 HLA-matched related or unrelated donor peripheral blood stem cells.

RESULTS

In mice, we show that dual JAK2/mTOR inhibition significantly reduces xenogeneic GVHD and increases peripheral regulatory T cell (Treg) potency as well as Treg induction from conventional CD4⁺ T cells. Pacritinib 100 mg twice a day was identified as the minimum biologically active and safe dose for further study. JAK2/mTOR inhibition suppresses pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells, spares Tregs and antileukemia effector cells, and exhibits preliminary activity in preventing GVHD. PAC/SIR/TAC preserves donor cytomegalovirus (CMV) immunity and permits timely engraftment without cytopenias.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate that PAC/SIR/TAC is safe and preliminarily limits acute GVHD, preserves donor CMV immunity, and permits timely engraftment. The efficacy of PAC/SIR/TAC will be tested in our ongoing phase II GVHD prevention trial.

Impaired Hematopoiesis after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation: Its Pathogenesis and Potential Treatments

Impaired hematopoiesis is a serious complication after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT). Bone marrow aplasia and peripheral cytopenias arise from primary and secondary graft failure or primary and secondary poor graft function. Chimerism analysis is useful to discriminate these conditions. By determining the pathogenesis of impaired hematopoiesis, a timely and appropriate treatment can be performed. Hematopoietic system principally consists of hematopoietic stem cells and bone marrow microenvironment termed niches. Abnormality in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells and/or abnormality in the relevant niches give rise to hematological diseases. Allo-HSCT is intended to cure each hematological disease, replacing abnormal hematopoietic stem cells and bone marrow niches with hematopoietic stem cells and bone marrow niches derived from normal donors. Therefore, treatment for graft failure and poor graft function after allo-HSCT is required to proceed based on determining the pathogenesis of impaired hematopoiesis. Recent progress in this area suggests promising treatment manipulations for graft failure and poor graft function.

Preemptive low-dose interleukin-2 or DLI for late-onset minimal residual disease in acute leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Minimal residual disease (MRD) after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) heralds high risk of relapse. Whether preemptive recombinant interleukin-2 (pre-IL2) is effective for patients with late-onset MRD (LMRD) remains unknown. We retrospectively compared the efficacy and safety of pre-IL2 (n = 30) and pre-DLI (n = 25) for LMRD in patients receiving allo-HSCT for acute leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome. The 1-year overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) rates were 86.7% and 78.4% (P = 0.267), 83.3% and 75.6% (P = 0.329), the cumulative incidence of grades III-IV acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) at 100 days post-preemptive intervention was 3.3% and 12.0% (P = 0.226) in the pre-IL2 group and pre-DLI group, respectively. The 1-year cumulative incidence of moderate/severe chronic GVHD (cGVHD), relapse (CIR), and non-relapse mortality (NRM) were 7.7% and 27.9% (P = 0.018), 13.6% and 20.0% (P = 0.561) and 3.3% and 5.5% (P = 0.321) in the two groups, respectively. No remarkable differences in CIR, OS, and DFS between the two intervention groups were found in multivariate analysis. The GVHD-free and relapse-free survival (GRFS) were better in the pre-IL2 group than in the pre-DLI group (HR = 0.31, 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.12-0.76; P = 0.011). In conclusion, preemptive low-dose IL2 and preemptive DLI yield comparable outcomes for patients with LMRD receiving allo-HSCT, in terms of aGVHD, NRM, relapse, OS, and DFS. However, preemptive low-dose IL2 has a lower incidence of moderate/severe cGVHD and a higher CRFS. Preemptive low-dose IL2 may be an alternative method for patients who develop LMRD after allo-HSCT, particularly for patients who cannot receive preemptive DLI.

How to Make an Immune System and a Foreign Host Quickly Cohabit in Peace? The Challenge of Acute Graft-Versus-Host Disease Prevention After Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation

Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (alloHCT) has been used as cellular immunotherapy against hematological cancers for more than six decades. Its therapeutic efficacy relies on the cytoreductive effects of the conditioning regimen but also on potent graft-versus-tumor (GVT) reactions mediated by donor-derived immune cells. However, beneficial GVT effects may be counterbalanced by acute GVHD (aGVHD), a systemic syndrome in which donor immune cells attack healthy tissues of the recipient, resulting in severe inflammatory lesions mainly of the skin, gut, and liver. Despite standard prophylaxis regimens, aGVHD still occurs in approximately 20–50% of alloHCT recipients and remains a leading cause of transplant-related mortality. Over the past two decades, advances in the understanding its pathophysiology have helped to redefine aGVHD reactions and clinical presentations as well as developing novel strategies to optimize its prevention. In this review, we provide a brief overview of current knowledge on aGVHD immunopathology and discuss current approaches and novel strategies being developed and evaluated in clinical trials for aGVHD prevention. Optimal prophylaxis of aGVHD would prevent the development of clinically significant aGVHD, while preserving sufficient immune responsiveness to maintain beneficial GVT effects and immune defenses against pathogens.

Cytokines and costimulation in acute graft-versus-host disease

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloSCT) is an important curative therapy for high-risk hematological malignancies, but the development of severe and/or steroid-refractory acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) remains a significant limitation to optimal outcomes. New approaches to prevent and treat aGVHD remain an unmet need that can be best addressed by understanding the complex disease pathophysiology. It is now clear that chemoradiotherapy used prior to alloSCT induces the release of endogenous alarmins (eg, HMGB-1, ATP, IL-1α, IL-33) from recipient tissue. Exogenous pathogen-derived molecules (eg, lipopolysaccharide, nucleic acids) also translocate from the gastrointestinal tract lumen. Together, these danger signals activate antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to efficiently present alloantigen to donor T cells while releasing cytokines (eg, interleukin-12 [IL-12], IL-23, IL-6, IL-27, IL-10, transforming growth factor-β) that expand and differentiate both pathogenic and regulatory donor T cells. Concurrent costimulatory signals at the APC-T-cell interface (eg, CD80/CD86-CD28, CD40-CD40L, OX40L-OX40, CD155/CD112-DNAM-1) and subsequent coinhibitory signals (eg, CD80/CD86-CTLA4, PDL1/2-PD1, CD155/CD112-TIGIT) are critical to the acquisition of effector T-cell function and ensuing secretion of pathogenic cytokines (eg, IL-17, interferon-γ, tissue necrosis factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor) and cytolytic degranulation pathway effectors (eg, perforin/granzyme). This review focuses on the combination of cytokine and costimulatory networks at the T-cell surface that culminates in effector function and subsequent aGVHD in target tissue. Together, these pathways now represent robust and clinically tractable targets for preventing the initiation of deleterious immunity after alloSCT.

Transient antibody targeting of CD45RC inhibits the development of graft-versus-host disease

Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is a widely spread treatment of many hematological diseases, but its most important side effect is graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Despite the development of new therapies, acute GVHD (aGVHD) occurs in 30% to 50% of allogeneic BMT and is characterized by the generation of effector T (Teff) cells with production of inflammatory cytokines. We previously demonstrated that a short anti-CD45RC monoclonal antibody (mAb) treatment in a heart allograft rat model transiently decreased CD45RChigh Teff cells and increased regulatory T cell (Treg) number and function allowing long-term donor-specific tolerance. Here, we demonstrated in rat and mouse allogeneic GVHD, as well as in xenogeneic GVHD mediated by human T cells in NSG mice, that both ex vivo depletion of CD45RChigh T cells and in vivo treatment with short-course anti-CD45RC mAbs inhibited aGVHD. In the rat model, we demonstrated that long surviving animals treated with anti-CD45RC mAbs were fully engrafted with donor cells and developed a donor-specific tolerance. Finally, we validated the rejection of a human tumor in NSG mice infused with human cells and treated with anti-CD45RC mAbs. The anti-human CD45RC mAbs showed a favorable safety profile because it did not abolish human memory antiviral immune responses, nor trigger cytokine release in in vitro assays. Altogether, our results show the potential of a prophylactic treatment with anti-human CD45RC mAbs in combination with rapamycin as a new therapy to treat aGVHD without abolishing the antitumor effect.

Targeting Signal 3 Extracellularly and Intracellularly in Graft-Versus-Host Disease

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HCT) holds curative potential for many hematological disorders. However, the pathophysiology of the desired graft-versus-tumor effect is linked to life-threatening complications of acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Allogeneic donor T lymphocytes are essential for causing GVHD, and their activation relies on the coordination of TCR engagement and co-stimulation, also known as Signal 1 and Signal 2. In addition to these signals, a network of secreted cytokines by immune cells provides a third signal, Signal 3, that is critical for the initiation and maintenance of GVHD. Strategies to target Signal 3 in human diseases have shown therapeutic benefit for inflammatory disorders such as Rheumatoid Arthritis and Inflammatory Bowel Disease. However, despite our growing understanding of their role in GVHD, the success of targeting individual cytokines has been modest with some notable exceptions. This review aims to describe current approaches toward targeting Signal 3 in clinical GVHD, and to highlight emerging studies in immune cell biology that may be harnessed for better clinical translation.

Metabolic reprogramming augments potency of human pSTAT3-inhibited iTregs to suppress alloreactivity

Immunosuppressive donor Tregs can prevent graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) or solid-organ allograft rejection. We previously demonstrated that inhibiting STAT3 phosphorylation (pSTAT3) augments FOXP3 expression, stabilizing induced Tregs (iTregs). Here we report that human pSTAT3-inhibited iTregs prevent human skin graft rejection and xenogeneic GVHD yet spare donor antileukemia immunity. pSTAT3-inhibited iTregs express increased levels of skin-homing cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen, immunosuppressive GARP and PD-1, and IL-9 that supports tolerizing mast cells. Further, pSTAT3-inhibited iTregs significantly reduced alloreactive conventional T cells, Th1, and Th17 cells implicated in GVHD and tissue rejection and impaired infiltration by pathogenic Th2 cells. Mechanistically, pSTAT3 inhibition of iTregs provoked a shift in metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) to glycolysis and reduced electron transport chain activity. Strikingly, cotreatment with coenzyme Q10 restored OxPhos in pSTAT3-inhibited iTregs and augmented their suppressive potency. These findings support the rationale for clinically testing the safety and efficacy of metabolically tuned, human pSTAT3-inhibited iTregs to control alloreactive T cells.

IL-2 enhances ex vivo-expanded regulatory T-cell persistence after adoptive transfer

As regulatory T cell (Treg) adoptive therapy continues to develop clinically, there is a need to determine which immunomodulatory agents pair most compatibly with Tregs to enable persistence and stabilize suppressor function. Prior work has shown that mechanistic target of rapamycin inhibition can increase the stability of thymic Tregs. In this study, we investigated the transcriptomic signatures of ex vivo-expanded Tregs after adoptive transfer in the setting of clinically relevant immunosuppression using a nonhuman primate (NHP) model as a prelude to future transplant studies. Here, we found that adding interleukin-2 (IL-2) to rapamycin in vivo supported a logarithmic increase in the half-life of adoptively transferred carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester-labeled, autologous NHP Tregs, effectively doubling the number of cells in the peripheral blood Treg compartment compared with Treg infusion when rapamycin was given alone. Using single-cell transcriptomics, we found that transferred ex vivo-expanded Tregs initially exhibit a gene expression signature consistent with an activated state. Moreover, those cells with the highest levels of activation also expressed genes associated with p53-mediated apoptosis. In contrast, transferred Tregs interrogated at day +20 posttransfer demonstrated a gene signature more similar to published profiles of resting Tregs. Together, these preclinical data further support combining IL-2 and rapamycin in vivo as adjunctive therapy for ex vivo-expanded adoptively transferred Tregs and suggest that the activation status of ex vivo-expanded Tregs is critical to their persistence.

Interleukin-27 Enforces Regulatory T Cell Functions to Prevent Graft-versus-Host Disease

Graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) remains a significant complication of allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT), associated with significant morbidity and mortality. GvHD is characterized by dysregulated immune responses and resulting tissue damage of target organs. Recent investigations have focused on Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) as a therapeutic tool, based on its regulatory functions in GvHD pathogenesis and their instrumental role in mitigating GvHD severity while preserving graft-versus-leukemia (GvL) activity. There are several challenges to its clinical application, including their paucity, impaired suppressive activity, and instability in vivo. Herein, we report that IL-27 pre-stimulation enhances suppressive functions of both mouse and human Tregs. In a complete MHC mismatched murine bone marrow transplant model, IL-27 pre-stimulated polyclonal iTregs diminish acute (a)GvHD lethality, while preserving the GvL effect. Allo-antigen specificity further improves suppressive functions when combined with IL-27 pre-stimulation. In a xenogeneic (human to mouse) GvHD model, IL-27 pre-stimulated human iTregs are superior in protecting recipients from GvHD. Lastly, we compared gene expression profiles of circulating Tregs isolated from HCT recipients with and without aGvHD and found that Tregs from aGvHD patients express distinct gene signatures enriched in immune activation and inflammation. Therefore, these results highlight a novel function of IL-27 in enforcing Treg functions to prevent aGvHD mediated lethality, proposing the hypothesis that dysregulated Treg functions may account for the potential mechanisms underlying GvHD development.

The role of regulatory T cells in graft-versus-host disease management

Introduction: Despite improvements in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) matching algorithms and supportive care, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) remains the leading cause of non-relapse morbidity and mortality following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Acute GVHD, typically occurring in the first 100 days post-HSCT, is mediated by mature effector T cells from the donor (graft) that become activated after encountering alloantigens in the recipient (host). Chronic GVHD, characterized by aberrant immune responses to both autoantigens and alloantigens, occurs later and arises from a failure to develop tolerance after HSCT. CD4+ CD25+ CD127- FOXP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) function to suppress auto- and alloreactive immune responses and are key mediators of immune tolerance.Areas covered: In this review, authors discuss the biologic and therapeutic roles of Tregs in acute and chronic GVHD, including in vivo and ex vivo strategies for Treg expansion and adoptive Treg cellular therapy.Expert opinion: Although they comprise only a small subset of circulating CD4 + T cells, Tregs play an important role in establishing and maintaining immune tolerance following allogeneic HSCT. The development of GVHD has been associated with reduced Treg frequency or numbers. Consequently, the immunosuppressive properties of Tregs are being harnessed in clinical trials for GVHD prevention and treatment.

Low-Dose IL-2 Therapy in Transplantation, Autoimmunity, and Inflammatory Diseases

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a central role in the induction and maintenance of immune homeostasis and self-tolerance. Tregs constantly express the high-affinity receptor to IL-2. IL-2 is a pleiotropic cytokine and a key survival factor for Tregs. It maintains Tregs' suppressive function by promoting Foxp3 expression and subsequent production of immunoregulatory cytokines. Administration of low-dose IL-2 is shown to be a promising approach to prevent allograft rejection and to treat autoimmune and inflammatory conditions in experimental models. The combination of IL-2 with its mAb (JES6-1) has also been shown to increase the t 1/2 of IL-2 and further enhance Treg frequencies and function. Low-dose IL-2 therapy has been used in several clinical trials to treat conditions such as hepatitis C vasculitis, graft-versus-host disease, type 1 diabetes, and systemic lupus erythematosus. In this paper, we summarize our findings on low-dose IL-2 treatment in corneal allografting and review recent studies focusing on the use of low-dose IL-2 in transplantation, autoimmunity, and other inflammatory conditions. We also discuss potential areas of further investigation with the aim to optimize current low-dose IL-2 regimens.

Future prospects for CD8+ regulatory T cells in immune tolerance

CD8⁺ Tregs have been long described and significant progresses have been made about their phenotype, their functional mechanisms, and their suppressive ability compared to conventional CD4⁺ Tregs. They are now at the dawn of their clinical use. In this review, we will summarize their phenotypic characteristics, their mechanisms of action, the similarities, differences and synergies between CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ Tregs, and we will discuss the biology, development and induction of CD8⁺ Tregs, their manufacturing for clinical use, considering open questions/uncertainties and future technically accessible improvements notably through genetic modifications.

Therapeutic use of regulatory T cells for graft-versus-host disease

Regulatory T cells (Treg cells) represent a CD4+ T-cell lineage that plays a critical role in restraining immune responses to self and foreign antigens and associated inflammation. Due to the suppressive function of Treg cells, inhibition or ablation of these cells can be used to boost the immunity against malignant cells. On the other hand, augmenting the activity of Treg cells can be employed for the treatment of inflammatory or autoimmune diseases and allogeneic conflicts associated with transplantation. Graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality after haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). In this review, we describe basic biological properties of Treg cells and their role in GvHD. We focus on the application of adoptive transfer of Treg cells and the therapeutic modulation of their activity for the prevention and treatment of GvHD in pre-clinical models and in clinical settings. We also discuss the main obstacles to applying Treg cell-based therapies for GvHD in clinical practice.

The promise of CD4+FoxP3+ regulatory T-cell manipulation in vivo: applications for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

CD4⁺FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a non-redundant population critical for the maintenance of self-tolerance. Over the past decade, the use of these cells for therapeutic purposes in transplantation and autoimmune disease has emerged based on their capacity to inhibit immune activation. Basic science discoveries have led to identifying key receptors on Tregs that can regulate their proliferation and function. Notably, the understanding that IL-2 signaling is crucial for Treg homeostasis promoted the hypothesis that in vivo IL-2 treatment could provide a strategy to control the compartment. The use of low-dose IL-2 in vivo was shown to selectively expand Tregs versus other immune cells. Interestingly, a number of other Treg cell surface proteins, including CD28, CD45, IL-33R and TNFRSF members, have been identified which can also induce activation and proliferation of this population. Pre-clinical studies have exploited these observations to prevent and treat mice developing autoimmune diseases and graft-versus-host disease post-allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. These findings support the development of translational strategies to expand Tregs in patients. Excitingly, the use of low-dose IL-2 for patients suffering from graft-versus-host disease and autoimmune disease has demonstrated increased Treg levels together with beneficial outcomes. To date, promising pre-clinical and clinical studies have directly targeted Tregs and clearly established the ability to increase their levels and augment their function in vivo. Here we review the evolving field of in vivo Treg manipulation and its application to allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

Targeting Regulatory T Cells to Treat Patients With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are central in integration and maintenance of immune homeostasis. Since breakdown of self-tolerance is a major culprit in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), restoration of the immune tolerance through the manipulation of Tregs can be exploited to treat patients with SLE. New information has revealed that Tregs besides their role in suppressing the immune response are important in tissue protection and regeneration. Expansion of Tregs with low-dose IL-2 represents an approach to control the autoimmune response. Moreover, control of Treg metabolism can be exploited to restore or improve their function. Here, we summarize the function and diversity of Tregs and recent strategies to improve their function in patients with SLE.