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Akram MZ, Sureda EA, Corion M, Comer L, Everaert N. Effects of on-farm hatching versus hatchery hatching on growth performance, gut development, and intestinal health and function in broiler chickens. Poult Sci 2025; 104:104770. [PMID: 39793243 PMCID: PMC11954917 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2025.104770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2024] [Revised: 12/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/03/2025] [Indexed: 01/13/2025] Open
Abstract
An alternative hatching system known as hatch on-farm (HOF) provides early access to feed compared to hatch in hatchery (HH) system. Early feeding may promote favorable gut development, potentially improving intestinal health and broiler performance. Previous studies have assessed the effects of HOF on chick quality, welfare and performance, its impacts on gut health remain inconclusive. A total of 560 Ross 308 male chicks were reared until d 38, hatched either in a hatchery (n = 280) or on-farm (n = 280), with 14 replicates per system and 20 birds per pen. Production parameters were periodically monitored. Digestive and immune organ characteristics, intestinal permeability and histomorphology were assessed on d 7, 14, and 38. High-throughput qPCR analyzed 79 ileal genes regarding barrier integrity, immune function, nutrient transporters, gut hormones, metabolism, and oxidation. HOF chicks had higher d1 body weights than HH chicks (P < 001), but this advantage disappeared within first week, with no subsequent performance differences. HOF chickens demonstrated increased duodenal villus width on d 7 and 14, and increased ileal crypt depth and submucosal thickness on d 7 (P < 0.05). Relative bursal weight was higher on d 14 (P = 0.018) and tended to be higher on d 38 in HOF chickens (P = 0.094). Intestinal permeability remained unaffected (P > 0.05), while HH chicks showed upregulation of gut barrier genes such as MUC5ac on d 7 and CLDN2 and MUC2 on d 14 (P < 0.05). HH chicks also showed upregulation of nutrient transports including VDR on d 7 and SLC30A1 and SLC5A9 on d 38, and decreased expression of the appetite-suppressing hormone CCK on d 7 (P < 0.05). HOF chicks upregulated immune-related genes, including IL-8 on d 7, IL-6, IFN-γ, AVBD9 on d 14, and NOS2 on d 38 (P < 0.05), and the oxidation gene HIF1A on d 38 (P = 0.039). In conclusion, although the HOF showed only transient growth advantages, it enhanced mucosal morphology and modulated immunity, indicating improved intestinal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Zeeshan Akram
- Nutrition and Animal-Microbiota Ecosystems Laboratory, Department of Biosystems, KU Leuven 3000, Heverlee, Belgium; Precision Livestock and Nutrition Unit, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Ester Arévalo Sureda
- Nutrition and Animal-Microbiota Ecosystems Laboratory, Department of Biosystems, KU Leuven 3000, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Matthias Corion
- Nutrition and Animal-Microbiota Ecosystems Laboratory, Department of Biosystems, KU Leuven 3000, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Luke Comer
- Nutrition and Animal-Microbiota Ecosystems Laboratory, Department of Biosystems, KU Leuven 3000, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Nadia Everaert
- Nutrition and Animal-Microbiota Ecosystems Laboratory, Department of Biosystems, KU Leuven 3000, Heverlee, Belgium.
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Marcato F, Schokker D, Kar SK, Bossers A, Harders F, Rebel JMJ, Jansen CA, van der Valk E, Kruijt L, te Beest DE, de Jong IC. Effects of breed and early feeding on intestinal microbiota, inflammation markers, and behavior of broiler chickens. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1492274. [PMID: 39687852 PMCID: PMC11648218 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1492274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2024] [Accepted: 10/31/2024] [Indexed: 12/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Recently, the Netherlands has shifted toward more welfare-friendly broiler production systems using slower-growing broiler breeds. Early post-hatch feeding (EF) is a dietary strategy that is currently used in commercial broiler production to modulate the gut microbiota and improve performance and welfare. However, there is a knowledge gap in how both breed and EF and their interplay affect gut microbiota composition and diversity, inflammatory status, and broiler behavior. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of breed (fast vs. slower-growing), EF, and their interaction on jejunum microbiota, inflammation, and behavior of broiler chickens. The study included a total of 416 Ross 308 and 416 Hubbard JA757 day-old male broiler chickens, observed until they were 37 days and 51 days old, respectively. Within each breed, one-half of the chickens received EF and the other half did not. A total of two chickens per pen were euthanized at two time points, that is, target body weight (BW) of 200 g and 2.5 kg, and jejunum samples were collected. The jejunum content samples (N = 96) were analyzed for their microbiota, whereas the jejunum tissue (N = 96) was used for the detection of mRNA levels of cytokines (IL-17, IL-22, and IFNγ). Two behavioral tests were performed to assess fear responses: (1) a novel environment test at a target BW of 200 g and (2) a tonic immobility test at a target BW of 2.5 kg. Breed affected the microbiota at a target BW of 2.5 kg (p = 0.04). A breed × EF interaction (p = 0.02) was present for IFNγ at a target BW of 200 g. During the novel environment test, Ross 308 chickens exhibited a shorter latency to vocalize and a higher number of vocalizations compared to Hubbard JA757 chickens (p < 0.05). Early-fed broiler chickens vocalized less compared to not early-fed chickens (Δ = -27.8 on average; p < 0.01). During the tonic immobility test, Hubbard JA757 chickens exhibited a shorter latency to stand compared to Ross 308 chickens. In conclusion, using a slower-growing breed has beneficial effects on gut microbiota and fear responses of broilers, especially at slaughter age, whereas EF seems to have an impact only at an early stage of the life of broilers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Marcato
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Dirkjan Schokker
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Wageningen University & Research, Lelystad, Netherlands
| | - Soumya Kanti Kar
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Alex Bossers
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Wageningen University & Research, Lelystad, Netherlands
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Frank Harders
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Wageningen University & Research, Lelystad, Netherlands
| | - Johanna M. J. Rebel
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Wageningen University & Research, Lelystad, Netherlands
| | - Christine A. Jansen
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Elianne van der Valk
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Leo Kruijt
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | | | - Ingrid C. de Jong
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Li D, Wang J, Liu L, Li K, Xu Y, Ding X, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Xie L, Liang S, Wang Y, Zhan X. Effects of early post-hatch feeding on the growth performance, hormone secretion, intestinal morphology and intestinal microbiota structure in broilers. Poult Sci 2022; 101:102133. [PMID: 36174266 PMCID: PMC9520077 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2022.102133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
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Konieczka P, Tykałowski B, Ognik K, Kinsner M, Szkopek D, Wójcik M, Mikulski D, Jankowski J. Increased arginine, lysine, and methionine levels can improve the performance, gut integrity and immune status of turkeys but the effect is interactive and depends on challenge conditions. Vet Res 2022; 53:59. [PMID: 35883183 PMCID: PMC9327309 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-022-01080-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Arginine (Arg), lysine (Lys), and methionine (Met) can be used to support the health status of turkeys. The present study investigated selected performance, gut integrity, and immunological parameters in turkeys reared in optimal or challenge conditions. The experiment lasted for 28 days, and it had a completely randomized 2 × 3 factorial design with two levels of dietary Arg, Lys and Met (high or low) and challenge with Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens), Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or no challenge (placebo). Increased dietary levels of Arg, Lys and Met had a beneficial effect on turkey performance and immunological parameters, and it improved selected indicators responsible for maintaining gut integrity in different challenge conditions. Under optimal conditions (with no challenge), high ArgLysMet diets did not compromise bird performance and they improved selected performance parameters in challenged birds. The immune system of turkeys was not excessively stimulated by high ArgLysMet diets, which did not disrupt the redox balance and had no negative effect on gut integrity. High ArgLysMet diets increased the expression levels of selected genes encoding nutrient transporters and tight junction proteins. However, the influence exerted by different dietary inclusion levels of Arg, Lys and Met on gut integrity was largely determined by the stressor (C. perfringens vs. LPS). Further studies are required to investigate the role of Arg, Lys and Met levels in the diet on the immune response, gut function and performance of turkeys in different challenge conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Konieczka
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719, Olsztyn, Poland. .,Department of Animal Nutrition, The Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences, Instytucka 3, 05-110, Jabłonna, Poland.
| | - Bartłomiej Tykałowski
- Department of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10‑719, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Ognik
- Department of Biochemistry and Toxicology, University of Life Sciences, 20-950, Lublin, Poland
| | - Misza Kinsner
- Department of Animal Nutrition, The Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences, Instytucka 3, 05-110, Jabłonna, Poland
| | - Dominika Szkopek
- Department of Animal Nutrition, The Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences, Instytucka 3, 05-110, Jabłonna, Poland
| | - Maciej Wójcik
- Department of Animal Nutrition, The Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences, Instytucka 3, 05-110, Jabłonna, Poland
| | - Dariusz Mikulski
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Jan Jankowski
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719, Olsztyn, Poland
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Al-Sagan AA, Al-Abdullatif A, Hussein EOS, Saadeldin IM, Al-Mufarrej SI, Qaid M, Albaadani HH, Swelum AAA, Alhotan R. Effects of Betaine Supplementation on Live Performance, Selected Blood Parameters, and Expression of Water Channel and Stress-Related mRNA Transcripts of Delayed Placement Broiler Chicks. Front Vet Sci 2021; 7:632101. [PMID: 33521096 PMCID: PMC7840959 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.632101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the effect of supplemental betaine on live performance, selected blood parameters, and gene expression of water channel proteins (Aquaporins, AQP) of broiler chicks delayed in placement for 48 h post-hatch. In total, 540 newly-hatched male broiler chicks were obtained from a local hatchery and were randomly allotted to one of five treatments with nine replicates per treatment (12 chicks per replicate). Chicks were either placed immediately, control; held for 48 h post-hatch with no access to feed or water, Holdnull; held for 48 h with free access to drinking water only, HoldW; held for 48 h with free access to drinking water supplemented with 1 ml per L of betaine solution (40% betaine), HoldB1; or held for 48 h with free access to drinking water supplemented with 2 ml per L of betaine solution (40% betaine), HoldB2 group. The results showed that post-hatch holding for 48 h depressed feed intake and body weight gain during the entire 15 d study period with no beneficial effect of supplemental betaine. Chicks in the HoldB2 group had elevated serum glucose, triglycerides, and aspartate aminotransferase 48 h post-hatch. Early water deprivation directly affected the brain proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and hepatic glucocorticoid receptors (GR) expression and induced significant changes in various aquaporins (AQP1, AQP2, AQP4, and AQP9). In conclusion, betaine supplementation to chicks held for 48 h post-hatch resulted in some changes in blood biochemical indices with no effects on performance during the first 15 days of life. The results suggest that betaine supplementation could ameliorate the stressful effects of water deprivation on POMC and GR expression and maintain cellular osmosis through interactions with variable aquaporins expression, particularly the AQP1 and AQP2. Further investigations are required to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the selective regulatory expression of different aquaporins in relation to betaine supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Islam M Saadeldin
- Department of Animal Production, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saud I Al-Mufarrej
- Department of Animal Production, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Qaid
- Department of Animal Production, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hani H Albaadani
- Department of Animal Production, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Rashed Alhotan
- Department of Animal Production, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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He W, Furukawa K, Toyomizu M, Nochi T, Bailey CA, Wu G. Interorgan Metabolism, Nutritional Impacts, and Safety of Dietary L-Glutamate and L-Glutamine in Poultry. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1332:107-128. [PMID: 34251641 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-74180-8_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
L-glutamine (Gln) is the most abundant amino acid (AA) in the plasma and skeletal muscle of poultry, and L-glutamate (Glu) is among the most abundant AAs in the whole bodies of all avian tissues. During the first-pass through the small intestine into the portal circulation, dietary Glu is extensively oxidized to CO2, but dietary Gln undergoes limited catabolism in birds. Their extra-intestinal tissues (e.g., skeletal muscle, kidneys, and lymphoid organs) have a high capacity to degrade Gln. To maintain Glu and Gln homeostasis in the body, they are actively synthesized from branched-chain AAs (abundant AAs in both plant and animal proteins) and glucose via interorgan metabolism involving primarily the skeletal muscle, heart, adipose tissue, and brain. In addition, ammonia (produced from the general catabolism of AAs) and α-ketoglutarate (α-KG, derived primarily from glucose) serve as substrates for the synthesis of Glu and Gln in avian tissues, particularly the liver. Over the past 20 years, there has been growing interest in Glu and Gln metabolism in the chicken, which is an agriculturally important species and also a useful model for studying some aspects of human physiology and diseases. Increasing evidence shows that the adequate supply of dietary Glu and Gln is crucial for the optimum growth, anti-oxidative responses, productivity, and health of chickens, ducklings, turkeys, and laying fowl, particularly under stress conditions. Like mammals, poultry have dietary requirements for both Glu and Gln. Based on feed intake, tissue integrity, growth performance, and health status, birds can tolerate up to 12% Glu and 3.5% Gln in diets (on the dry matter basis). Glu and Gln are quantitatively major nutrients for chickens and other avian species to support their maximum growth, production, and feed efficiency, as well as their optimum health and well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenliang He
- Departments of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Kyohei Furukawa
- Departments of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.,Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Masaaki Toyomizu
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Tomonori Nochi
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Christopher A Bailey
- Departments of Poultry Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Guoyao Wu
- Departments of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
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7
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Effects of dietary amino acids in ameliorating intestinal function during enteric challenges in broiler chickens. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2019.114383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Barekatain R, Chrystal PV, Howarth GS, McLaughlan CJ, Gilani S, Nattrass GS. Performance, intestinal permeability, and gene expression of selected tight junction proteins in broiler chickens fed reduced protein diets supplemented with arginine, glutamine, and glycine subjected to a leaky gut model. Poult Sci 2019; 98:6761-6771. [PMID: 31328774 PMCID: PMC6869755 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pez393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Changing dietary protein and amino acids may impact intestinal barrier function. Experiments were conducted in broiler chickens to evaluate supplementation of L-glutamine, glycine, and L-arginine in a reduced protein (RP) diet. Experiment 1 examined the growth performance of broilers fed 5 dietary treatments: 1) a standard diet; 2) an RP diet (193.9 g/kg CP in grower and 176.9 g/kg CP in finisher); 3) RP diet supplemented with 10 g/kg L-Gln; 4) RP diet supplemented with 10 g/kg Gly; 5) RP diet supplemented with 5 g/kg L-Arg. Each experimental diet was replicated 6 times with 10 birds per replicate. In a subset of 96 birds, experiment 2 tested the 4 RP diets with and without dexamethasone (DEX) to induce leaky gut. Each diet was replicated 24 times. Fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran (FITC-d) was used to test intestinal permeability (IP). Gene expression of selected tight junction proteins in ileal and jejunal tissues was assayed by quantitative PCR. From day 7 to 35, the RP diet increased feed intake (FI) (P < 0.05) and body weight gain (BWG) compared with the standard diet while Gln reduced FI and BWG (P < 0.05) compared with RP. Gly had no effect on BWG or FCR. Supplementation of Arg improved FCR from day 21 to 35 and day 7 to 35. In experiment 2, Arg tended to lower FITC-d (P = 0.086). DEX increased passage of FITC-d into the serum (P < 0.001). The villi surface area was increased in birds fed higher Arg (P < 0.05). DEX and diet interacted (P < 0.01) for jejunal claudin-3 mRNA level where DEX upregulated claudin-3 for all diets except the Arg diet. In summary, with a moderate reduction of protein, satisfactory performance can be obtained. Although Gln and Gly had no demonstrable positive effect on IP and performance of broilers, increasing the dietary Arg by approximately 140% improved FCR and showed indications of improved intestinal barrier function of birds fed an RP diet under a stress model.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Barekatain
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, Roseworthy Campus, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA 5371, Australia
- School of Animal and Veterinary Science, Roseworthy Campus, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA 5371, Australia
| | - P V Chrystal
- Baiada Poultry, Pendle Hill, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - G S Howarth
- School of Animal and Veterinary Science, Roseworthy Campus, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA 5371, Australia
| | - C J McLaughlan
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, Roseworthy Campus, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA 5371, Australia
| | - S Gilani
- School of Animal and Veterinary Science, Roseworthy Campus, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA 5371, Australia
| | - G S Nattrass
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, Roseworthy Campus, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA 5371, Australia
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Zulkifli I, Akmal A, Soleimani A, Hossain M, Awad E. Effects of low-protein diets on acute phase proteins and heat shock protein 70 responses, and growth performance in broiler chickens under heat stress condition. Poult Sci 2018; 97:1306-1314. [DOI: 10.3382/ps/pex436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
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Bortoluzzi C, Rochell SJ, Applegate TJ. Threonine, arginine, and glutamine: Influences on intestinal physiology, immunology, and microbiology in broilers. Poult Sci 2018; 97:937-945. [DOI: 10.3382/ps/pex394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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Gilani S, Howarth GS, Tran CD, Kitessa SM, Forder REA, Barekatain R, Hughes RJ. Effects of delayed feeding, sodium butyrate and glutamine on intestinal permeability in newly-hatched broiler chickens. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2018; 46:973-976. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2018.1443109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Saad Gilani
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
- Poultry CRC, University of New England, Armidale, Australia
| | - Gordon S. Howarth
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Cuong D. Tran
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Health and Bio-security, Adelaide, Australia
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Soressa M. Kitessa
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia
| | - Rebecca E. A. Forder
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Reza Barekatain
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia
| | - Robert J. Hughes
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia
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