The impact of dark exposure on broiler feeding behavior and weight of gastrointestinal tract segments and contents

Interaction between energy level and starch:fat ratio on intestinal energy metabolism of layer pullets

During the growing period, the gastrointestinal tract of layer pullets is not yet well developed and may be susceptible to dietary energy level. The energy level and composition might impact the intestinal energy metabolism of layer pullets. To test this hypothesis, a total of 480 "Jing Tint 6" layer pullets were used in an 8-week study and allocated to 4 groups, each consisting of 8 replicates, with 15 birds per replicate. Pullets were treated with low or high starch:fat ratios (LS, 10:1; HS, 20:1) in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with regular energy (RE, 11.85 and 11.68 MJ/kg for birds from 6 to 10 weeks of age and 11-14 weeks of age, respectively) or low energy (LE, 0.55 MJ/kg lower than RE) levels. A significant interaction (P < 0.05) showed that HS increased glandular stomach weight and the jejunal villus length to crypt depth ratio (VCR) in LE diets, but decreased these parameters in RE diets. Dietary energy reduction impaired energy metabolism in the ileum (P < 0.05) mainly via decreasing the gene expression of enzymes involved in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex [α-KGDH]; isocitrate dehydrogenase (NAD (+) [IDH] catalytic; citrate synthase [CS]) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis, reducing contents of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and adenylate energy charges (AEC) and down-regulating the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. HS stimulated AMPKα phosphorylation, increased protein abundance of peroxisome proliferator activated-receptor gamma coactivator 1α (PGC1α) and improved contents of amino acids (aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, alanine and threonine) and malate in the ileum regardless of energy levels (P < 0.05). By an interaction (P < 0.05), the transition from LS to HS diets up-regulated ileal gene expression of AMPKα1 and decreased content of adenosine monophosphate (AMP), accompanied by higher AEC but only in birds fed with LE diets. Collectively, these results suggest that low energy feeding may not be enough for maintaining intestinal energy homeostasis in layer pullets and emphasizes the importance of a relatively high starch:fat ratio in restoring energy metabolism in the ileum.

Photoperiod Management in Farm Animal Husbandry: A Review

This review aims to examine the effects of the photoperiod on farm animals and to provide insights into how lighting management can optimize production performance, reproduction, and welfare. The production performance of farm animals is influenced by a variety of factors, such as diet, breed, and environment. Among these, lighting is a crucial component of the feeding environment. With the advancement of intensive farming, lighting measures are increasingly receiving attention. The photoperiod regulates the biological rhythms of animals and affects the secretion of hormones within the animal's body, particularly melatonin. Melatonin regulates the secretion and release of several other hormones through various pathways, such as growth hormone, prolactin, and gonadotropins. Therefore, the environmental light cycle participates in a variety of physiological activities within animals. An appropriate photoperiod can enhance the production performance, reproduction performance, and welfare conditions of farm animals. Choosing the appropriate lighting duration based on different animals, physiological stages, and production purposes can enhance the economic benefits of farms. In this review, we summarized the recent findings on the impact of photoperiods in different farm animal feeding environments on animal husbandry, although research on the suitable photoperiod for some animals might be outdated and is also discussed in this article. For lactating dairy cows, calves, poultry, pigs (excluding boars), and rabbits, continuous light exposure exceeding 12 h per day can be implemented to enhance growth and production performance. In contrast, for boars and goats, daily light exposure should be limited to less than 10 h to optimize reproductive and productive efficiency. Overall, this review aimed to provide theoretical support for research on the optimal photoperiod for farm animals.

Photostimulation decreases fearfulness, but improves growth performance and egg quality of breeder Pekin ducks

Lighting is a critical environmental factor that influences production performance and welfare of poultry, however Pekin ducks can typically be housed under 24 h (24 h) of light. 460 hatchlings were randomly allocated to 4 rooms with two pens in each room. The rooms were allocated to 24 h light or PS. PS was achieved by gradually increasing photoperiod by half an hour per week from days 112 to 238 and held at 18 h light for the rest of life. Prior to the onset of lay, pens were organized with 30 hens and 7 drakes/pen (4 pens/treatment). We measured bodyweight at weeks 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, 19, and 29, feed intake at weeks 1 to 7 and feed conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated for weeks 1, 2, and 5. Eggs laid were recorded daily from weeks 20 to 31. Novel object test (NOT) was done at weeks 1, 5, 10, 19, and 29, transect welfare scoring at week 30, egg quality assessment at weeks 28 and 29, and fertility was determined at weeks 28 and 29. Statistical analyses were done using 2-way ANOVA, T-test, or Friedman Test with a Tukey-Kramer test as post-hoc. A p ≤ 0.05 was considered significant. Drakes bodyweight was higher in the PS compared to 24h treatment at weeks 5 (p < 0.01) and 10 (p < 0.001). No difference was observed in FCR, fertility, or transect data. NOT showed lower fear response (p < 0.05) at weeks 5 and 10 in the PS compared to 24 h treatment. The 24 h treatment increased the percent eggs laid at weeks 23 (p < 0.05), 24 (p < 0.01) and 25 (p < 0.05) compared to the PS. However, there was a higher egg weight (p < 0.001), yolk weight (p < 0.05), Haugh unit (p < 0.05), and shell weight (p = 0.05) in the PS compared to 24 h treatment. Our findings support that PS may help decrease fearfulness, improve growth performance and egg quality of breeder ducks.

Taste Preferences in Broilers: Effect of Age, Delivery Matrix, and Number of Chickens per Pen on Selection and Consumption Behaviour

Due to substantial differences between studies, the understanding of avian taste perception remains incomplete. Also, studies on chicken taste preferences have mainly focused on measuring consumption differences, neglecting consumption behaviour patterns. This study investigated how age, the compound delivery matrix, and the number of birds per pen affect broiler chicken preferences and consumption behaviour, and established their preference values for four taste compounds. Ninety-six one-day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were divided into two age groups (initial: days 7-23; final: days 26-42), with two compound delivery matrices (water or ground wheat) and two numbers of birds (one or two chickens per pen), following a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design. Four taste compounds (sucrose, monosodium glutamate (MSG), L-lysine, and calcium carbonate) were tested at different concentrations. Preferences were assessed at 2, 4, and 8 h post-test, along with recording various behavioural parameters. Initial-stage birds showed higher (p < 0.001) preference values, time of approach (TA), number of bouts (NB), duration of bouts (DB), and number of pecks (NP) than final-stage birds. Birds exposed to a water matrix also exhibited higher (p < 0.001) preference and NB, while those exposed to a ground wheat matrix showed a higher (p < 0.001) NP. Pens with a pair of birds had a higher (p < 0.003) 2 h preference, TA, NB, DB, and NP, than pens with a single chicken. Chickens showed significant preference values for 100 mM sucrose at 2 h (p = 0.025), 150 mM MSG at 4 h (p = 0.026) and 8 h (p = 0.013), and 300 mM MSG at 2 h (p = 0.013). We concluded that all the variables evaluated influence broilers' taste preferences and consumption behaviour during selection tests. Future studies should prioritize including chickens in the initial stage of the production cycle, testing them in pairs or groups, and delivering compounds via a liquid matrix.

Daylight exposure and circadian clocks in broilers: part I-photoperiod effect on broiler behavior, skeletal health, and fear response

The aim of this study was to examine effects of various daylight exposure during the 24-h light-dark (L-D) cycle on growth performance, skeletal health, and welfare state in broilers. Environmental photoperiod and related circadian clock, the 24-h L-D cycle, are important factors in maintaining productive performance, pathophysiological homeostasis, and psychological reaction in humans and animals. Currently, various lighting programs as management tools for providing a satisfactory environmental condition have been used in commercial broiler production. Four hundred thirty-two 1-day-old Rose 308 broiler chicks were assigned to 24 pens (18 birds/pen). The pens were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 thermal and lighting control rooms, then the birds were exposed to (n = 6): 1) 12L, 2) 16L, 3) 18L, or 4) 20L at 15 d of age. Lighting program effects on bird body weight, behavioral patterns, bone health, and stress levels were evaluated from d 35 to d 45, respectively. The birds of 12L as well as 16L groups, reared under short photoperiods close to the natural 24-h L-D cycle, had improved production performance, leg bone health, and suppressed stress reaction compared to the birds of both 18L and 20L groups. Especially, 12L birds had heavier final body weight and averaged daily weight gain (P < 0.05), higher BMD and BMC with longer and wider femur (P < 0.05), lower H/L ratio (P < 0.05), and more birds reached the observer during the touch test (P < 0.05) but spent shorter latency during the tonic immobility test (P < 0.05). Taken together, the data suggest that supplying 12 h as well as 16L of daily light improves performance and health while decreasing stress levels in broilers, making it a potentially suitable approach for broiler production.

Targeted dosing for susceptible heteroresistant subpopulations may improve rational dosage regimen prediction for colistin in broiler chickens

The dosage of colistin for the treatment of enteric E. coli in animals necessitates considering the heteroresistant (HR) nature of the targeted inoculum, described by the presence of a major susceptible population (S1, representing 99.95% of total population) mixed with an initial minor subpopulation of less susceptible bacteria (S2). Herein, we report the 1-compartment population pharmacokinetics (PK) of colistin in chicken intestine (jejunum and ileum) and combined it with a previously established pharmacodynamic (PD) model of HR in E. coli. We then computed probabilities of target attainment (PTA) with a pharmacodynamic target (AUC24h/MIC) that achieves 50% of the maximal kill of bacterial populations (considering inoculums of pure S1, S2 or HR mixture of S1 + S2). For an MIC of 1 mg/L, PTA > 95% was achieved with the registered dose (75,000 IU/kg BW/day in drinking water) for the HR mixture of S1 + S2 E. coli, whether they harboured mcr or not. For an MIC of 2 mg/L (ECOFF), we predicted PTA > 90% against the dominant susceptible sub-population (S1) with this clinical dose given (i) over 24 h for mcr-negative isolates or (ii) over 6 h for mcr-positive isolates (pulse dosing). Colistin clinical breakpoint S ≤ 2 mg/L (EUCAST rules) should be confirmed clinically.

Comparing Pixel Changes and Manual Observations for Mapping Broiler Activity during Dried Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens) Provisioning

Welfare issues in broilers include inactivity and poor leg health. Activity can be stimulated by providing whole dried Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BFSL), but it is unknown whether this effect changes over time. Therefore, effects of BSFL provisioning on broiler activity per minute were assessed in detail. Additionally, the use of pixel changes as a proxy for broiler activity was explored. Broilers were housed in groups of 28 (n = 4 pens, <33 kg/m²). Dried BSFL were scattered through the pen of treatment groups at 08:00, 11:00, 14:00, and 17:00. Activity was assessed per minute both manually using scan sampling, and automatically as percent pixel changes for 30 min around BSFL provisioning, and at 14, 21 and 28 days of age. Both methods were moderately positively correlated and showed that BSFL provisioning increased activity. Activity as assessed by manual observations decreased at 17:00, at 21, and 28 days in both groups. The pixel changes indicated that this could be due to low activity levels in the control group. Using pixel changes seems to be a promising, timesaving tool to score broiler activity, but future research is necessary to validate this method and determine how high activity can be maintained over time.

The effect of light regime and time of slaughter in broiler on broiler performance, liver antioxidant status, and expression of genes related to peptide absorption in the jejunum and melatonin synthesis in the brain

This study aimed to assess the effects of light regime and time of slaughter on primal cut and organ weights, peptide transporter 1 (PEPT1) gene expression in the jejunum, arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT) gene expression in the brain, and liver oxidant/antioxidant status in broilers aged 37 days. The experiment was conducted in a factorial completely randomized design, with two light regimes (intermittent light varying according to bird age and continuous light under an 18 h light/6 h dark photoperiod) and four times of slaughter (2:00, 8:00, 14:00 and 20:00 h). There was an interaction effect on PEPT1 and AANAT expression, lipid and protein oxidation and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. In both light regimes, PEPT1 expression responded cubically to slaughter time. In the continuous light group, PEPT1 expression was highest in birds slaughtered at 2:00 and 14:00 h, whereas, in the intermittent light treatment, expression was highest at 8:00 h. In the continuous light regime, AANAT expression had a cubic relationship with time of slaughter, with the greatest values recorded at 20:00 h. In the intermittent light regime, slaughter time showed a cubic effect on lipid oxidation, which was highest at 8:00 h. In the continuous light group, there was a cubic effect on nitrite concentration, lipid oxidation, protein oxidation, and SOD activity; nitrite levels, lipid oxidation, and protein oxidation were highest and SOD activity was lowest in birds slaughtered at 14:00 h. Time of slaughter influenced catalase activity, which responded cubically; catalase activity was lowest at 8:00 and 14:00 h. This study is the first to demonstrate that PEPT1 expression in the jejunum of broilers follows a diurnal rhythm and varies according to light regime. The results also suggest that mainly continuous lighting and slaughter at 14:00 h when the animals are possibly more active may be more stressful to broilers.

Lighting program as a management tool for broilers raised without antibiotics - impact on productivity and welfare

1. This study investigated the impact of photoperiod on the productivity and welfare of broilers reared without antibiotics (RWA).2. A total of 8,064 mixed sex Ross 308 broilers were allocated to two trials. Lighting treatments were 14L:10D, 17L:7D, 20L:4D or 23L:1D.3. Significance defined when P≤0.05 and trends noted when P≤0.10. Highest body weights and feed consumption were found in the 4D treatment. Longer dark periods resulted in improved feed conversion. Uniformity was improved with 1D.4. Heterophil/lymphocyte ratios were highest in birds reared on 1D. Longer photoperiods negatively impacted gait and footpad scores. Birds spent more time performing feeding behaviours under longer photoperiods. Birds reared under 1 and 10D spent more time standing while those under 4 and 7D spent more time preening. Birds raised on 4D spent more time environmental pecking, while object pecking occurred more under 10D. Condemnations were lowest in birds reared under 7D.5. In conclusion, rearing RWA broilers on longer photoperiods negatively impacted welfare, as indicated by poorer mobility, higher stress, more severe footpad lesions and altered behaviour.

Effect of different feed restriction regimens on performance, behaviors, blood cortisol, and carcass parameters of growing Sasso broilers

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different feed restriction regimens on performance, behavioral patterns, blood cortisol, and carcass parameters in Sasso broilers. Sixty healthy 1-day-old unsexed Sasso chicks were randomly assigned to three groups (20 chicks per group) and each group was divided into 4 replicates with 5 chicks each based on feed restriction program during the rearing period (60 days). The first group (G1) is control in which birds were fed ad libitum had free access to feed (no restriction). The second group (G2) was subjected to temporary feed restriction at the first 2 weeks as birds had access to feed for 12 h only after that they had free access to feed until the end of the experimental period. The third one (G3) was subjected to continuous feed restriction as birds had free access to feed for 12 h only throughout the rearing periods. During the study period, growth performance and behavioral patterns were estimated. At the end of the study, blood samples for cortisol testing were taken. Three birds from each group were slaughtered at the end of the study to see how the feed restriction affected carcass parameters. Feed restriction had a substantial impact (P ≤ 0.05) on final body weight and carcass parameters. Feed restriction elevated blood cortisol significantly (P = 0.004). Feed restriction showed a significant impact on some behaviors as feeding, stretching, preening, and aggression. Overall, different feed restriction programs had a wide effect on growth performance, behaviors, cortisol concentration, and carcass parameters of Sasso broilers.

Physiological parameter values for physiologically based pharmacokinetic models in food-producing animals. Part II: Chicken and turkey

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models are growing in popularity due to human food safety concerns and for estimating drug residue distribution and estimating withdrawal intervals for veterinary products originating from livestock species. This paper focuses on the physiological and anatomical data, including cardiac output, organ weight, and blood flow values, needed for PBPK modeling applications for avian species commonly consumed in the poultry market. Experimental and field studies from 1940 to 2019 for broiler chickens (1-70 days old, 40 g - 3.2 kg), laying hens (4-15 months old, 1.1-2.0 kg), and turkeys (1 day-14 months old, 60 g -12.7 kg) were searched systematically using PubMed, Google Scholar, ProQuest, and ScienceDirect for data collection in 2019 and 2020. Relevant data were extracted from the literature with mean and standard deviation (SD) being calculated and compiled in tables of relative organ weights (% of body weight) and relative blood flows (% of cardiac output). Trends of organ or tissue weight growth during different life stages were calculated when sufficient data were available. These compiled data sets facilitate future PBPK model development and applications, especially in estimating chemical residue concentrations in edible tissues to calculate food safety withdrawal intervals for poultry.

Assessing the effect of starch digestion characteristics on ileal brake activation in broiler chickens

The objective of this research was to evaluate activation of the ileal brake in broiler chickens using diets containing semi-purified wheat (WS; rapidly and highly digested) and pea (PS; slowly and poorly digested) starch. Diets were formulated to contain six WS:PS ratios (100:0, 80:20, 60:40, 40:60, 20:80, 0:100) and each starch ratio was fed to 236 Ross 308 male broilers housed in 4 litter floor pens. At 28 d of age, the effect of PS concentration was assessed on starch digestion, digestive tract morphology, and digesta pH and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) concentration. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (PYY) status were assessed in serum (ELISA) and via gene expression in jejunal and ileal tissue (proglucagon for GLP-1). Data were analyzed using regression analyses, and significance was accepted at P ≤ 0.05. Increasing dietary PS resulted in reduced starch digestibility in the small intestine, but had no effect in the colon. Crop content pH responded quadratically to PS level with an estimated minimum at 55% PS. Total SCFA increased linearly in the crop with PS level, but changed in a quadratic fashion in the ileum (estimated maximum at 62% PS). Ceacal SCFA concentrations were highest for the 80 and 100% PS levels. The relative empty weight (crop, small intestine, colon), length (small intestine) and content (crop jejunum, Ileum) of digestive tract sections increased linearly with increasing PS concentration. Dietary treatment did not affect serum GLP-1 or PYY or small intestine transcript abundance. In conclusion, feeding PS increased the presence of L-cell activators (starch, SCFA) and increased trophic development and content of the digestive tract, suggestive of L-cell activation. However, no direct evidence of ileal brake activation was found by measuring venous blood levels of GLP-1 or PYY or corresponding gene expression in small intestine tissue.

The length of the feed restriction period affects eating behavior, growth performance, and the development of the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract of young broilers

We studied the effects of restricting the access to feed on the anticipatory eating behavior, growth performance, and the development of the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in broilers. The experiment consisted in physical restriction of the access of broilers to feed for 0, 4, 6, or 8 h per day from 7 to 19 D of age. At 10, 13, 16, and 19 D of age, immediately before the start of the feed restriction (FR) period, 2 birds per cage were euthanized to evaluate crop and gizzard development. The experimental design was completely randomized, and the linear (L) and quadratic (Q) effects of fasting length on growth performance and GIT traits were determined. In addition, the effect of broiler age on GIT development was studied. From 7 to 19 D of age, ADFI (L, Q; P ≤ 0.05) and BW gain (L; P ≤ 0.01) decreased as the length of the FR period increased, with most of the differences observed with 6 or more hours of fasting. However, feed conversion ratio was not affected by FR length. The relative weight of the crop (% BW) and its fresh content increased (L; P ≤ 0.001) and the moisture of the digesta (%) decreased (L; P ≤ 0.001) as the FR period increased. The DM content (g) of the crop increased with FR, with most of the differences observed with 6 or more hours of fasting (L, Q; P ≤ 0.001). At 19 D of age, the Lactobacillus spp. count in the crop increased (L; P ≤ 0.05) with increase in the FR period. Fasting did not affect any gizzard trait at any age. In summary, physical restriction of the access to feed for 6 h or more reduced BW gain but did not affect feed conversion ratio in broilers from 7 to 19 D of age. Feed restriction for 4 to 8 h stimulated the anticipatory feeding behavior and crop development in broilers.