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Etienne C, Houssaye A, Fagan MJ, Hutchinson JR. Estimation of the forces exerted on the limb long bones of a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) using musculoskeletal modelling and simulation. J Anat 2024. [PMID: 38558391 DOI: 10.1111/joa.14041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Heavy animals incur large forces on their limb bones, due to the transmission of body weight and ground reaction forces, and the contractions of the various muscles of the limbs. This is particularly true for rhinoceroses, the heaviest extant animals capable of galloping. Several studies have examined their musculoskeletal system and the forces their bones incur, but no detailed quantification has ever been attempted. Such quantification could help understand better the link between form and function in giant land animals. Here we constructed three-dimensional musculoskeletal models of the forelimb and hindlimb of Ceratotherium simum, the heaviest extant rhino species, and used static optimisation (inverse) simulations to estimate the forces applied on the bones when standing at rest, including magnitudes and directions. Overall, unsurprisingly, the most active muscles were antigravity muscles, which generate moments opposing body weight (thereby incurring the ground reaction force), and thus keep the joints extended, avoiding joint collapse via flexion. Some muscles have an antigravity action around several joints, and thus were found to be highly active, likely specialised in body weight support (ulnaris lateralis; digital flexors). The humerus was subjected to the greatest amount of forces in terms of total magnitude; forces on the humerus furthermore came from a great variety of directions. The radius was mainly subject to high-magnitude compressive joint reaction forces, but to little muscular tension, whereas the opposite pattern was observed for the ulna. The femur had a pattern similar to that of the humerus, and the tibia's pattern was intermediate, being subject to great compression in its caudal side but to great tension in its cranial side (i.e. bending). The fibula was subject to by far the lowest force magnitude. Overall, the forces estimated were consistent with the documented morphofunctional adaptations of C. simum's long bones, which have larger insertion areas for several muscles and a greater robusticity overall than those of lighter rhinos, likely reflecting the intense forces we estimated here. Our estimates of muscle and bone (joint) loading regimes for this giant tetrapod improve the understanding of the links between form and function in supportive tissues and could be extended to other aspects of bone morphology, such as microanatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril Etienne
- UMR 7179 Mécanismes adaptatifs et Évolution (MECADEV), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Alexandra Houssaye
- UMR 7179 Mécanismes adaptatifs et Évolution (MECADEV), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Michael J Fagan
- Department of Engineering, Medical and Biological Engineering Research Group, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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2
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Heers AM. Unexpected Performance in Developing Birds. Integr Comp Biol 2023; 63:772-784. [PMID: 37516443 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icad064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Birds are well known for their ability to fly, and flight-capable adult birds have many anatomical specializations for meeting the demands of aerial locomotion. Juvenile birds in altricial species typically acquire these specializations close to fledging and leave the nest with some flight capability. In contrast, juveniles in most precocial species begin navigating their environment with rudimentary anatomies and may not develop full-sized wings or musculoskeletal apparatuses for several months. This manuscript explores how juvenile birds achieve high levels of locomotor performance in the absence of flight specializations, by synthesizing work on two groups of precocial birds with very different developmental strategies. Galliforms like the Chukar Partridge (Alectoris chukar) have early wing development and are capable of flight within weeks. Compared with adults, juvenile chukars have less aerodynamically effective feathers and smaller muscles but compensate through anatomical, kinematic, and behavioral mechanisms. In contrast, waterfowl have delayed wing development and initially rely on leg-based locomotion. In Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and their domesticated derivatives, leg investment and performance peak early in ontogeny, but then decline when wings develop. Chukar and mallard juveniles thus rely on different mechanisms for negotiating their surroundings in the absence of flight specializations. In conjunction with work in other animals, these patterns indicate that juveniles with developing locomotor apparatuses can achieve surprisingly high levels of locomotor performance through a variety of compensatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Heers
- California State University, Los Angeles, Biological Sciences, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
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3
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Demuth OE, Herbst E, Polet DT, Wiseman ALA, Hutchinson JR. Modern three-dimensional digital methods for studying locomotor biomechanics in tetrapods. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb245132. [PMID: 36810943 PMCID: PMC10042237 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.245132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Here, we review the modern interface of three-dimensional (3D) empirical (e.g. motion capture) and theoretical (e.g. modelling and simulation) approaches to the study of terrestrial locomotion using appendages in tetrapod vertebrates. These tools span a spectrum from more empirical approaches such as XROMM, to potentially more intermediate approaches such as finite element analysis, to more theoretical approaches such as dynamic musculoskeletal simulations or conceptual models. These methods have much in common beyond the importance of 3D digital technologies, and are powerfully synergistic when integrated, opening a wide range of hypotheses that can be tested. We discuss the pitfalls and challenges of these 3D methods, leading to consideration of the problems and potential in their current and future usage. The tools (hardware and software) and approaches (e.g. methods for using hardware and software) in the 3D analysis of tetrapod locomotion have matured to the point where now we can use this integration to answer questions we could never have tackled 20 years ago, and apply insights gleaned from them to other fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver E. Demuth
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, UK
| | - Eva Herbst
- Palaeontological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Delyle T. Polet
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Ashleigh L. A. Wiseman
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, AL9 7TA, UK
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4
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Mo A, Izzi F, Gönen EC, Haeufle D, Badri-Spröwitz A. Slack-based tunable damping leads to a trade-off between robustness and efficiency in legged locomotion. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3290. [PMID: 36841875 PMCID: PMC9968281 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30318-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals run robustly in diverse terrain. This locomotion robustness is puzzling because axon conduction velocity is limited to a few tens of meters per second. If reflex loops deliver sensory information with significant delays, one would expect a destabilizing effect on sensorimotor control. Hence, an alternative explanation describes a hierarchical structure of low-level adaptive mechanics and high-level sensorimotor control to help mitigate the effects of transmission delays. Motivated by the concept of an adaptive mechanism triggering an immediate response, we developed a tunable physical damper system. Our mechanism combines a tendon with adjustable slackness connected to a physical damper. The slack damper allows adjustment of damping force, onset timing, effective stroke, and energy dissipation. We characterize the slack damper mechanism mounted to a legged robot controlled in open-loop mode. The robot hops vertically and planarly over varying terrains and perturbations. During forward hopping, slack-based damping improves faster perturbation recovery (up to 170%) at higher energetic cost (27%). The tunable slack mechanism auto-engages the damper during perturbations, leading to a perturbation-trigger damping, improving robustness at a minimum energetic cost. With the results from the slack damper mechanism, we propose a new functional interpretation of animals' redundant muscle tendons as tunable dampers.
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Affiliation(s)
- An Mo
- Dynamic Locomotion Group, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Fabio Izzi
- grid.419534.e0000 0001 1015 6533Dynamic Locomotion Group, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research and Center for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Emre Cemal Gönen
- grid.419534.e0000 0001 1015 6533Dynamic Locomotion Group, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Daniel Haeufle
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research and Center for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany ,grid.5719.a0000 0004 1936 9713Institute for Modelling and Simulation of Biomechanical Systems, Computational Biophysics and Biorobotics, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alexander Badri-Spröwitz
- grid.419534.e0000 0001 1015 6533Dynamic Locomotion Group, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
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5
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Heers AM, Tobalske BW, Jackson BE, Dial KP. Where is WAIR (and other wing-assisted behaviours)? Essentially everywhere: a response to Kuznetsov and Panyutina (2022). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Kuznetsov and Panyutina (2022) offer a reanalysis of the kinematic and force plate data previously published by Bundle and Dial (2003). Their intention is to describe instantaneous wing forces during wing-assisted incline running (WAIR), focusing particularly on the upstroke phase. Based on their interpretation of wing forces and muscle function, the authors conclude that ‘WAIR is a very specialized mode of locomotion that is employed by a few specialized birds as an adaptation to a very specific environment and involving highly developed flying features of the locomotor apparatus’, and thus not relevant to the evolution of avian flight. Herein, we respond to the authors’ interpretations, offering an alternative perspective on WAIR and, more generally, on studies exploring the evolution of avian flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Heers
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles , Los Angeles, CA , USA
| | - Bret W Tobalske
- Flight Laboratory, Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana , Missoula, MT , USA
| | - Brandon E Jackson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Longwood University , Farmville, VA , USA
| | - Kenneth P Dial
- Flight Laboratory, Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana , Missoula, MT , USA
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Peng L, Pan T, Zheng M, Song S, Su G, Li Q. Kinematics and Aerodynamics of Dragonflies (Pantala flavescens, Libellulidae) in Climbing Flight. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:795063. [PMID: 35372311 PMCID: PMC8966397 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.795063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study presents a detailed analysis of dragonflies’ climbing flight by integratinghigh-speed photogrammetry, three-dimensional reconstruction, and computational fluid dynamics. In this study, a dragonfly’s climbing flight is captured by two high-speed cameras with orthogonal optical axes. Through feature point matching and three-dimensional reconstruction, the body kinematics and wing kinematics of 22 dragonflies in climbing flight are accurately captured. Experimental results show that the climbing angles (η) are distributed from 10° to 80° and are concentrated within two ranges, 60°–70° (36%) and 20°–30° (32%), which are defined as large angle climb (LAC) and small angle climb (SAC), respectively. In order to study the aerodynamic mechanism of the climbing flight based on the biological observation results, the kinematic parameters of the dragonfly during LAC and SAC are selected for analysis and numerical simulation. The results show that the climbing angle η and wing kinematics are related. There are considerable differences in wing kinematics during climbing with different η, while the wing kinematics are unchanged during climbing with similar η. With the increase in η, the phase difference (λ) between the forewing and the hind wing decreases and the amplitude of the positional angle (θmean) of the hind wing increases, while θmean of the forewing remains almost unchanged. Through numerical simulation of LAC and SAC, it can be found that during the climb with different η, the different wing kinematics have a significant influence on aerodynamic performance. During SAC, the increase in λ and the decrease in θmean of the hind wing weaken the aerodynamic disturbance of the forewing by the vortex wing of the hind wing, thus improving the flight efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liansong Peng
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Tianyu Pan
- Reserach Institute of Aero-Engine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Mengzong Zheng
- Reserach Institute of Aero-Engine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Mengzong Zheng,
| | - Shiying Song
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Guanting Su
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Qiushi Li
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Reserach Institute of Aero-Engine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Fluid and Power Machinery, Ministry of Education, Xihua University, Chengdu, China
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Gatesy SM, Manafzadeh AR, Bishop PJ, Turner ML, Kambic RE, Cuff AR, Hutchinson JR. A proposed standard for quantifying 3-D hindlimb joint poses in living and extinct archosaurs. J Anat 2022; 241:101-118. [PMID: 35118654 PMCID: PMC9178381 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The last common ancestor of birds and crocodylians plus all of its descendants (clade Archosauria) dominated terrestrial Mesozoic ecosystems, giving rise to disparate body plans, sizes, and modes of locomotion. As in the fields of vertebrate morphology and paleontology more generally, studies of archosaur skeletal structure have come to depend on tools for acquiring, measuring, and exploring three‐dimensional (3‐D) digital models. Such models, in turn, form the basis for many analyses of musculoskeletal function. A set of shared conventions for describing 3‐D pose (joint or limb configuration) and 3‐D kinematics (change in pose through time) is essential for fostering comparison of posture/movement among such varied species, as well as for maximizing communication among scientists. Following researchers in human biomechanics, we propose a standard methodological approach for measuring the relative position and orientation of the major segments of the archosaur pelvis and hindlimb in 3‐D. We describe the construction of anatomical and joint coordinate systems using the extant guineafowl and alligator as examples. Our new standards are then applied to three extinct taxa sampled from the wider range of morphological, postural, and kinematic variation that has arisen across >250 million years of archosaur evolution. These proposed conventions, and the founding principles upon which they are based, can also serve as starting points for measuring poses between elements within a hindlimb segment, for establishing coordinate systems in the forelimb and axial skeleton, or for applying our archosaurian system more broadly to different vertebrate clades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Gatesy
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Armita R Manafzadeh
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Peter J Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Morgan L Turner
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.,Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Robert E Kambic
- Department of Biology, Hood College, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew R Cuff
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Human Anatomy Resource Centre, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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9
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van Beesel J, Hutchinson JR, Hublin JJ, Melillo SM. Exploring the functional morphology of the Gorilla shoulder through musculoskeletal modelling. J Anat 2021; 239:207-227. [PMID: 33629406 PMCID: PMC8197971 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Musculoskeletal computer models allow us to quantitatively relate morphological features to biomechanical performance. In non‐human apes, certain morphological features have long been linked to greater arm abduction potential and increased arm‐raising performance, compared to humans. Here, we present the first musculoskeletal model of a western lowland gorilla shoulder to test some of these long‐standing proposals. Estimates of moment arms and moments of the glenohumeral abductors (deltoid, supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles) over arm abduction were conducted for the gorilla model and a previously published human shoulder model. Contrary to previous assumptions, we found that overall glenohumeral abduction potential is similar between Gorilla and Homo. However, gorillas differ by maintaining high abduction moment capacity with the arm raised above horizontal. This difference is linked to a disparity in soft tissue properties, indicating that scapular morphological features like a cranially oriented scapular spine and glenoid do not enhance the abductor function of the gorilla glenohumeral muscles. A functional enhancement due to differences in skeletal morphology was only demonstrated in the gorilla supraspinatus muscle. Contrary to earlier ideas linking a more obliquely oriented scapular spine to greater supraspinatus leverage, our results suggest that increased lateral projection of the greater tubercle of the humerus accounts for the greater biomechanical performance in Gorilla. This study enhances our understanding of the evolution of gorilla locomotion, as well as providing greater insight into the general interaction between anatomy, function and locomotor biomechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia van Beesel
- Department of Human Evolution, Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure & Motion Laboratory, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - Jean-Jacques Hublin
- Department of Human Evolution, Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Collège de France, Paris, France
| | - Stephanie M Melillo
- Department of Human Evolution, Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Heers AM, Varghese SL, Hatier LK, Cabrera JJ. Multiple Functional Solutions During Flightless to Flight-Capable Transitions. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.573411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of avian flight is one of the great transformations in vertebrate history, marked by striking anatomical changes that presumably help meet the demands of aerial locomotion. These changes did not occur simultaneously, and are challenging to decipher. Although extinct theropods are most often compared to adult birds, studies show that developing birds can uniquely address certain challenges and provide powerful insights into the evolution of avian flight: unlike adults, immature birds have rudimentary, somewhat “dinosaur-like” flight apparatuses and can reveal relationships between form, function, performance, and behavior during flightless to flight-capable transitions. Here, we focus on the musculoskeletal apparatus and use CT scans coupled with a three-dimensional musculoskeletal modeling approach to analyze how ontogenetic changes in skeletal anatomy influence muscle size, leverage, orientation, and corresponding function during the development of flight in a precocial ground bird (Alectoris chukar). Our results demonstrate that immature and adult birds use different functional solutions to execute similar locomotor behaviors: in spite of dramatic changes in skeletal morphology, muscle paths and subsequent functions are largely maintained through ontogeny, because shifts in one bone are offset by changes in others. These findings help provide a viable mechanism for how extinct winged theropods with rudimentary pectoral skeletons might have achieved bird-like behaviors before acquiring fully bird-like anatomies. These findings also emphasize the importance of a holistic, whole-body perspective, and the need for extant validation of extinct behaviors and performance. As empirical studies on locomotor ontogeny accumulate, it is becoming apparent that traditional, isolated interpretations of skeletal anatomy mask the reality that integrated whole systems function in frequently unexpected yet effective ways. Collaborative and integrative efforts that address this challenge will surely strengthen our exploration of life and its evolutionary history.
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