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Cronan JE. Lipoic acid attachment to proteins: stimulating new developments. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2024:e0000524. [PMID: 38624243 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00005-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYLipoic acid-modified proteins are essential for central metabolism and pathogenesis. In recent years, the Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis lipoyl assembly pathways have been modified and extended to archaea and diverse eukaryotes including humans. These extensions include a new pathway to insert the key sulfur atoms of lipoate, several new pathways of lipoate salvage, and a novel use of lipoic acid in sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. Other advances are the modification of E. coli LplA for studies of protein localization and protein-protein interactions in cell biology and in enzymatic removal of lipoate from lipoyl proteins. Finally, scenarios have been put forth for the evolution of lipoate assembly in archaea.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Cronan
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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Fang W, Jiang L, Zhu Y, Yang S, Qiu H, Cheng J, Liang Q, Tu ZC, Ye C. Methionine restriction constrains lipoylation and activates mitochondria for nitrogenic synthesis of amino acids. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2504. [PMID: 37130856 PMCID: PMC10154411 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38289-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Methionine restriction (MR) provides metabolic benefits in many organisms. However, mechanisms underlying the MR-induced effect remain incompletely understood. Here, we show in the budding yeast S. cerevisiae that MR relays a signal of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) deprivation to adapt bioenergetic mitochondria to nitrogenic anabolism. In particular, decreases in cellular SAM constrain lipoate metabolism and protein lipoylation required for the operation of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in the mitochondria, leading to incomplete glucose oxidation with an exit of acetyl-CoA and α-ketoglutarate from the TCA cycle to the syntheses of amino acids, such as arginine and leucine. This mitochondrial response achieves a trade-off between energy metabolism and nitrogenic anabolism, which serves as an effector mechanism promoting cell survival under MR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Fang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Liu Jiang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yibing Zhu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Sen Yang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hong Qiu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiou Cheng
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qingxi Liang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- National R&D Center for Freshwater Fish Processing, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China
| | - Zong-Cai Tu
- National R&D Center for Freshwater Fish Processing, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Cunqi Ye
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
- Kidney Disease Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
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3
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Lennox-Hvenekilde D, Bali AP, Gronenberg LS, Acevedo-Rocha C, Sommer MOA, Genee HJ. Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for high-level production of free lipoic acid. Metab Eng 2023; 76:39-49. [PMID: 36639019 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2023.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
L-Lipoic acid (LA) is an important antioxidant with various industrial applications as a nutraceutical and therapeutic. Currently, LA is produced by chemical synthesis. Cell factory development is complex as LA and its direct precursors only occur naturally in protein-bound forms. Here we report a rationally engineered LA cell factory and demonstrate de novo free LA production from glucose for the first time in E. coli. The pathway represents a significant challenge as the three key enzymes, native Octanoyltransferase (LipB) and Lipoyl Synthase (LipA), and heterologous Lipoamidase (LpA), are all toxic to overexpress in E. coli. To overcome the toxicity of LipB, functional metagenomic selection was used to identify a highly active and non-toxic LipB and LipA from S. liquefaciens. Using high throughput screening, we balanced translation initiation rates and dual, orthogonal induction systems for the toxic genes, LipA and LpA. The optimized strain yielded 2.5 mg free LA per gram of glucose in minimal media, expressing carefully balanced LipB and LipA, Enterococcus faecalis LpA, and a truncated, native, Dihydrolipoyllysine-residue acetyltransferase (AceF) lipoylation domain. When the optimized cell factory strain was cultivated in a fed-batch fermentation, a titer of 87 mg/L free LA in the supernatant was reached after 48 h. This titer is ∼3000-fold higher than previously reported free LA titer and ∼8-fold higher than the previous best total, protein-bound LA titer. The strategies presented here could be helpful in designing, constructing and balancing biosynthetic pathways that harbor toxic enzymes with protein-bound intermediates or products.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Lennox-Hvenekilde
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark; Biosyntia ApS, Fruebjergvej 3, 2100, Oesterbro, Denmark
| | - Anne P Bali
- Biosyntia ApS, Fruebjergvej 3, 2100, Oesterbro, Denmark
| | | | | | - Morten O A Sommer
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Hans J Genee
- Biosyntia ApS, Fruebjergvej 3, 2100, Oesterbro, Denmark.
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Xiao J, Guo S, Shi X. Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for the production of (R)-α-lipoic acid. Biotechnol Lett 2023; 45:273-286. [PMID: 36586051 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-022-03341-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To increase the production of (R)-α-lipoic acid directly from octanoic acid using engineered Escherichia coli with the regeneration of S-adenosylmethionine. RESULTS The biosynthesis of (R)-α-lipoic acid (LA) in E. coli BL21(DE3) is improved by co-expression of lipoate-protein ligase A (LplA) from E. coli MG1655 and lipoate synthase (LipA) from Vibrio vulnificus. The engineered strain produces 20.99 µg l-1 of LA in shake flask cultures. The titers of LA are increased to 169.28 µg l-1 after the optimization of the medium components and fermentation conditions. We find that the [4Fe-4S] cluster is important for the activity of LipA and co-expression of iscSUA promotes the regeneration of the [4Fe-4S] cluster and leads to the highest LA titer of 589.30 µg l-1. CONCLUSION The method described here can be widely applied for the biosynthesis of (R)-α-lipoic acid and other metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbin Xiao
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, No. 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Shaobin Guo
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, No. 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou, 350108, China.
| | - Xian'ai Shi
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, No. 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou, 350108, China.,Fujian Key Lab of Medical Instrument and Biopharmaceutical Technology, Fuzhou University, No. 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou, 350108, China
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Ling H, Liu R, Sam QH, Shen H, Chai LYA, Chang MW. Engineering of a probiotic yeast for the production and secretion of medium-chain fatty acids antagonistic to an opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1090501. [PMID: 36923462 PMCID: PMC10008859 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1090501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans is an opportunistic pathogen, with its infection as one of the causes of morbidity or mortality. Notably, the probiotic yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii has shown the potential to fight against Candida infections. In this study, we aimed to engineer a commercial boulardii strain to produce medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) with antagonistic effects against C. albicans. First, we identified and characterized a boulardii strain and created its auxotrophic strain Δura3. Next, we constructed and expressed a heterologous MCFA biosynthetic pathway under the control of inducible and constitutive promoters. Aside from examining MCFA production and secretion, we confirmed MCFAs' effects on C. albicans' anti-biofilm and anti-hyphal formations and the immunomodulatory effect of MCFA-containing supernatants on Caco-2 cells. We found that under constitutive promoters, the engineered boulardii strain constitutively produced and secreted a mixture of C6:0, C8:0, and C10:0. The secreted MCFAs then reduced biofilm and hyphal formations in C. albicans SC5314. We also confirmed that MCFAs upregulated the expression of virulence-related genes in SC5314. Furthermore, we found that the constitutively produced MCFAs in the supernatant induced the upregulation of immune response genes in Caco-2 cells co-cultured with SC5314, indicating MCFAs' roles in immunomodulation. Overall, the engineered boulardii strain produced and secreted MCFAs, as well as demonstrated antagonistic effects against C. albicans SC5314 and immune-modulatory effects in Caco-2. To our knowledge, this represents the first study tackling the metabolic engineering of a commercial probiotic yeast strain to constitutively produce and secrete MCFAs showing anti-Candida effects. Our study forms the basis of the potential development of a live biotherapeutics probiotic yeast against Candida infections through metabolic engineering strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Ling
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory (WIL@NUS), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ruirui Liu
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory (WIL@NUS), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Qi Hui Sam
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Haosheng Shen
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory (WIL@NUS), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Louis Yi Ann Chai
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Matthew Wook Chang
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory (WIL@NUS), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Marta TB, Argondizzo AC, da Silva Oliboni R, Silva MS. NMR chiral recognition of lipoic acid by cinchonidine CSA: A stereocenter beyond the organic function. Chirality 2023; 35:40-48. [PMID: 36336792 DOI: 10.1002/chir.23514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-lipoic acid is a natural product that possesses distinct pharmacological properties. Lipoic acid is a short-chain fatty acid containing an asymmetric carbon at five bonds of distance to the organic function. Herein, we developed a nuclear magnetic resonance protocol to access the chiral recognition of lipoic acid in a simple and rapid procedure employing cinchonidine as a cheap chiral solvation agent in deuterated chloroform. To optimize this method, a statistical design of the experimental model was performed to produce a clear understanding of the optimal concentration, temperature, and molar ratio parameters. Based on the obtained spectra, the cinchonidine H8 -H9 scalar coupling indicated a conformational preference in the chiral discrimination procedure. Density functional theory calculations established a proximity between the asymmetric center of lipoic acid and the aromatic moiety of cinchonidine, clarifying possible conformations in this ion-pair interaction. The described protocol demonstrates how far is far enough to chiral discrimination using a chiral solvation agent, expanding the method to compounds that contain a remote stereocenter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia Behnen Marta
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa - LASOL, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Augusto Cardozo Argondizzo
- Grupo de Catálise e Estudos Teóricos, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Robson da Silva Oliboni
- Grupo de Catálise e Estudos Teóricos, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Márcio Santos Silva
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa - LASOL, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Balagurunathan B, Ling H, Choi WJ, Chang MW. Potential use of microbial engineering in single-cell protein production. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2022; 76:102740. [PMID: 35660478 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Single-cell proteins (SCPs) have been widely used in human food and animal feed applications, still, there are challenges in their production and commercialization. Recently, advances in microbial synthetic biology, genomic engineering, and biofoundry technologies have offered capabilities to effectively and rapidly engineer microorganisms for improving the productivity, nutritional, and functional quality of SCPs. In this review, we discuss various synthetic biology, genomic engineering, and biofoundry tools that can be harnessed for SCP production and genetic modification. We also describe the current and potential applications of genetic modification in producing intermediate feedstocks, as well as biomass-based and multifunctional SCPs. Finally, we discuss the technological and policy-control related challenges encountered when deploying genetic modification in SCP production for animal feed and human food applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balaji Balagurunathan
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A⁎STAR) 1, Pesek Road, Jurong Island, 627833, Singapore.
| | - Hua Ling
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore; Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory (WIL@NUS), National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, Singapore 117599, Singapore.
| | - Won Jae Choi
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A⁎STAR) 1, Pesek Road, Jurong Island, 627833, Singapore; NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore; Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research in Singapore (A⁎STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore 627833, Singapore; Singapore Institute of Technology, 10 Dover Dr, Singapore 138683, Singapore
| | - Matthew Wook Chang
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore; Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory (WIL@NUS), National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, Singapore 117599, Singapore.
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9
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Jung H, Ling H, Tan YQ, Chua NH, Yew WS, Chang MW. Heterologous expression of cyanobacterial gas vesicle proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol J 2021; 16:e2100059. [PMID: 34499423 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202100059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Given the potential applications of gas vesicles (GVs) in multiple fields including antigen-displaying and imaging, heterologous reconstitution of synthetic GVs is an attractive and interesting study that has translational potential. Here, we attempted to express and assemble GV proteins (GVPs) into GVs using the model eukaryotic organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We first selected and expressed two core structural proteins, GvpA and GvpC from cyanobacteria Anabaena flos-aquae and Planktothrix rubescens, respectively. We then optimized the protein production conditions and validated GV assembly in the context of GV shapes. We found that when two copies of anaA were integrated into the genome, the chromosomal expression of AnaA resulted in GV production regardless of GvpC expression. Next, we co-expressed chaperone-RFP with the GFP-AnaA to aid the AnaA aggregation. The co-expression of individual chaperones (Hsp42, Sis1, Hsp104, and GvpN) with AnaA led to the formation of larger inclusions and enhanced the sequestration of AnaA into the perivacuolar site. To our knowledge, this represents the first study on reconstitution of GVs in S. cerevisiae. Our results could provide insights into optimizing conditions for heterologous protein production as well as the reconstitution of other synthetic microcompartments in yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harin Jung
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hua Ling
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yong Quan Tan
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nam-Hai Chua
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wen Shan Yew
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Matthew Wook Chang
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Wilmar-NUS Corporate Laboratory, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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