Podophyllotoxin Exposure Causes Spindle Defects and DNA Damage-Induced Apoptosis in Mouse Fertilized Oocytes and Early Embryos

Comprehensive Biotechnological Strategies for Podophyllotoxin Production from Plant and Microbial Sources

Podophyllotoxin is derived from plant sources and exhibits strong anticancer activity. However, limited natural availability and environmental impacts from traditional extraction methods drive the search for alternative production approaches. This review explores diverse strategies for sustainable podophyllotoxin synthesis, including biosynthesis, semi-synthesis, and biotransformation. Biosynthetic methods involve metabolic pathway engineering in plant or microbial cells, enabling increased yields by manipulating precursor availability and gene expression. Semi-synthetic approaches modify podophyllotoxin precursors or intermediates to enhance therapeutic effects, with derivatives like etoposide and teniposide showing clinical efficacy. Biotransformation, utilising organisms such as endophytic fungi or human hepatic enzymes, enables the transformation of substrates like deoxypodophyllotoxin into podophyllotoxin or its derivatives, yielding compounds with reduced environmental impact and improved purity. The anticancer efficacy of podophyllotoxin and its derivatives stems from multiple mechanisms. These compounds disrupt cell mitosis by inhibiting microtubule assembly, impairing nucleoside transport, and blocking topoisomerase II activity, leading to DNA cleavage and cancer cell apoptosis. Podophyllotoxin and its derivatives also exhibit anti-angiogenesis and anti-metastatic effects through signalling pathway modulation. Notably, derivatives like deoxypodophyllotoxin utilise advanced delivery systems, enhancing targeted efficacy and reducing side effects. Given the varied mechanisms and growing therapeutic applications, optimising biotransformation and delivery techniques remains essential for advancing podophyllotoxin-based therapies. This comprehensive review underscores the compound's potential as a robust anticancer agent and the need for continued research to maximise its production and clinical effectiveness.

Nicotinamide mononucleotide enhances the developmental potential of mouse early embryos exposed to perfluorooctanoic acid

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) exposure severely affects the health of animals and humans, including early embryonic development, but the effective approaches to improve the quality of embryos exposed to PFOA have not been explored. Here, we report that nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) can be used to attenuate the impairment of mouse early embryos caused by PFOA exposure. We find that NMN supplementation maintains the normal spindle assembly and proper chromosome alignment by restoring the acetylation level of microtubule to enhance the mitotic capacity of embryos at zygotic cleavage stage under PFOA exposure. In addition, NMN exerts its beneficial effect by enhancing mitochondrial function and eliminating accumulated reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn alleviates DNA damage and apoptosis in PFOA-exposed 2-cell embryos. Moreover, NMN ameliorates the quality of PFOA-exposed blastocysts via recovering the octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (Oct4) expression, the actin dynamics, and the total number of cells. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that supplementation with NMN is a feasible strategy to restore the compromised early embryonic development under PFOA exposure, providing a scientific basis for application of NMN to increase the female fertility.

The Effects of Podophyllotoxin Derivatives on Noncancerous Diseases: A Systematic Review

Podophyllotoxin (PPT) is commonly used for genital warts due to its antimitotic properties and relatively good accessibility since it can be extracted from plants in low-economy countries. However, due to relatively high toxicity, it cannot be used in a systematic way (intravenously). Thus, there is a need to find or create an equally effective derivative of PPT that will be less toxic. Natural PPT is a suitable and promising scaffold for the synthesis of its derivatives. Many of them have been studied in clinical and preclinical models. In this systematic review, we comprehensively assess the medical applications of PPT derivatives, focusing on their advantages and limitations in non-cancerous diseases. Most of the existing research focuses on their applications in cancerous diseases, leaving non-cancerous uses underexplored. To do that, we systematically reviewed the literature using PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases from January 2013 to January 2025. In total, 5333 unique references were identified in the initial search, of which 44 were included in the quantitative synthesis. The assessment of the quality of eligible studies was undertaken using the PRISMA criteria. The risk of bias was assessed using a predefined checklist based on PRISMA guidelines. Each study was independently reviewed by two researchers to evaluate bias in study design, reporting, and outcomes. Our analysis highlights the broad therapeutic potential of PPT derivatives, particularly in antiviral applications, including HPV, Dengue, and SARS-CoV-2 infections. Apart from their well-known anti-genital warts activity, these compounds exhibit significant anti-inflammatory, antimitotic, analgesic, and radioprotective properties. For instance, derivatives such as cyclolignan SAU-22.107 show promise in antiviral therapies, while compounds like G-003M demonstrate radioprotective effects by mitigating radiation-induced damage. To build on this, our review highlights that PPT derivatives, apart from anti-genital warts potential, exhibit four key properties-anti-inflammatory, antimitotic, analgesic, and radioprotective-making them promising candidates not only for treating viral infections such as HPV, Dengue, and SARS-CoV-2 but also for expanding their therapeutic potential beyond cancerous diseases. In conclusion, while PPT derivatives hold great potential across various medical domains, their applications in non-cancerous diseases remain limited by the scarcity of dedicated research. Continued exploration of these compounds is essential to unlock their full therapeutic value.

Chemistry and Biology of Podophyllotoxins: An Update

Podophyllotoxin is an aryltetralin lignan lactone derived from different plants of Podophyllum. It consists of five rings with four chiral centers, one trans-lactone and one aryl tetrahydronaphthalene skeleton with multiple modification sites. Moreover, podophyllotoxin and its derivatives showed lots of bioactivities, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and insecticidal properties. The demand for podophyllotoxin and its derivatives is rising as a result of their high efficacy. As a continuation of our previous review (Chem. Eur. J., 2017, 23, 4467-4526), herein, total synthesis, biotransformation, structural modifications, bioactivities, and structure-activity relationships of podophyllotoxin and its derivatives from 2017 to 2022 are summarized. Meanwhile, a piece of update information on the origin of new podophyllotoxin analogues from plants from 2014 to 2022 was compiled. We hope that this review will provide a reference for future high value-added applications of podophyllotoxin and its analogues in the pharmaceutical and agricultural fields.

Enhanced podophyllotoxin production of endophyte Fusarium proliferatum TQN5T by host extract and phenylalanine

Fermentation technology using endophytes is considered a potential alternative approach for producing pharmaceutical compounds like podophyllotoxin (PTOX). In this study, fungus TQN5T (VCCM 44284) was selected from endophytic fungi isolated from Dysosma versipellis in Vietnam for PTOX production through TLC. The presence of PTOX in TQN5T was further confirmed by HPLC. Molecular identification indicated TQN5T as Fusarium proliferatum with 99.43% identity. This result was asserted by morphological characteristics such as white cottony, filamentous colony, layer and branched mycelium, and clear hyphae septa. Cytotoxic assay indicated both biomass extract and culture filtrate of TQN5T presented strong cytotoxicity on LU-1 and HepG2 with IC50 of 0.11, 0.20, 0.041, and 0071, respectively, implying anti-cancer compounds were accumulated in the mycelium and secreted into the medium. Further, the production of PTOX in TQN5T was investigated in the fermentation condition supplemented with 10 µg/ml of host plant extract or phenylalanine as elicitors. The results revealed a significantly higher amount of PTOX in the PDB + PE and PDB + PA at all studied time points in comparison with PDB (control). Especially, after 168 h of culture, PTOX content in the PDB with plant extract reached the peak with 314 µg/g DW which is 10% higher than the best yield of PTOX in previous studies, denoting F. proliferatum TQN5T as a promising PTOX producer. This is the first study on enhancing the PTOX production in endophytic fungi by supplementing phenylalanine-a precursor for PTOX biosynthesis in plants into fermented media, suggesting a common PTOX biosynthetic pathway between host plant and endophytes. KEY POINTS: • Fusarium proliferatum TQN5T was proven for PTOX production. • Both mycelia extract and spent broth extract of Fusarium proliferatum TQN5T presented strong cytotoxicity on cancer cell lines LU-1 and HepG2. • The supplementation of 10 µg/ml host plant extract and phenylalanine into fermentation media of F. proliferatum TQN5T improved the yield of PTOX.

Mitochondrial dynamics when mitochondrial toxic chemicals exposed in 3D cultured mouse embryonic stem cell

Mitochondria need to use considerable energy for the intracellular organelles that produce ATP. They are abundant in the cells of organs, such as muscles, liver, and kidneys. The heart, which requires a lot of energy, is also rich in mitochondria. Mitochondrial damage can induce cell death. Doxorubicin, acetaminophen, valproic acid, amiodarone, and hydroxytamoxifen are representative substances that induce mitochondrial damage. On the other hand, the effects of this substance on the progress of cardiomyocyte-differentiating stem cells have not been investigated. Therefore, a 3D cultured embryonic body toxicity test was performed. The results confirmed that the cytotoxic effects on cardiomyocytes were due to mitochondrial damage in the stage of cardiomyocyte differentiation. After drug treatment, the cells were raised in the embryoid body state for four days to obtain the ID50 values, and the levels of mRNA expression associated with the mitochondrial complex were examined. The mitochondrial DNA copy numbers were also compared to prove that the substance affects the number of mitochondria in EB-state cardiomyocytes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43188-022-00161-1.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) exposure affects early embryonic development and offspring oocyte quality via inducing mitochondrial dysfunction

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is a synthetic perfluorinated compound that is extensively used as an integral surfactant in commercial production. Owing to its hydrophilicity and persistence, PFOA can accumulate in living organisms and induce severe disease in animals and humans. It has been reported that PFOA exposure can affect ovarian function and induce reproductive toxicity; however, the effects and potential mechanism of PFOA exposure during gestation on early embryonic development and offspring remain unclear. This study found that PFOA exposure in vitro disrupted spindle assembly and chromosome alignment during the first cleavage of early mouse embryos, which impacted early embryonic cleavage and blastocyst formation. Moreover, PFOA exposure caused mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress by inducing aberrant Ca²⁺ levels, liquid drops(LDs), and mitochondrial membrane potential in the 2-cell stage. Furthermore, we found that PFOA exposure resulted in DNA damage, autophagy, and apoptosis in 2-cell stage by inhibiting SOD2 function. Gestational exposure to PFOA significantly increased ovarian apoptosis and disrupted follicle development in F1 offspring. In addition, oocyte maturation competence was decreased in F1 offspring. Finally, single-cell transcriptome analysis revealed that PFOA-induced oocyte deterioration was caused by mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in the F1 offspring. In summary, our results indicated that gestational exposure to PFOA had potential toxic effects on ovarian function and led to a higher incidence of meiotic defects in F1 female offspring.

Biosynthesis, total synthesis, and pharmacological activities of aryltetralin-type lignan podophyllotoxin and its derivatives

Covering: up to 2022Podophyllotoxin (PTOX, 1), a kind of aryltetralin-type lignan, was first discovered in the plant Podophyllum peltatum and its structure was clarified by W. Borsche and J. Niemann in 1932. Due to its potent anti-cancer and anti-viral activities, it is considered one of the molecules most likely to be developed into modern drugs. With the increasing market demand and insufficient storage of natural resources, it is crucial to expand the sources of PTOXs. The original extraction method from plants has gradually failed to meet the requirements, and the biosynthesis and total synthesis have become the forward-looking alternatives. As key enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway of PTOXs and their catalytic mechanisms being constantly revealed, it is possible to realize the heterogeneous biosynthesis of PTOXs in the future. Chemical and chemoenzymatic synthesis also provide schemes for strictly controlling the asymmetric configuration of the tetracyclic core. Currently, the pharmacological activities of some PTOX derivatives have been extensively studied, laying the foundation for clinical candidate drugs. This review focuses primarily on the latest research progress in the biosynthesis, total synthesis, and pharmacological activities of PTOX and its derivatives, providing a more comprehensive understanding of these widely used compounds and supporting the future search for clinical applications.

MicroRNA regulates the toxicological mechanism of four mycotoxins in vivo and in vitro

Mycotoxins can cause body poisoning and induce carcinogenesis, often with a high mortality rate. Therefore, it is of great significance to seek new targets that indicate mycotoxin activity and to diagnose and intervene in mycotoxin-induced diseases in their early stages. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are physiological regulators whose dysregulation is closely related to the development of diseases. They are thus important markers for the occurrence and development of diseases. In this review, consideration is given to the toxicological mechanisms associated with four major mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone). The roles that miRNAs play in these mechanisms and the interactions between them and their target genes are explained, and summarize the important role of histone modifications in their toxicity. As a result, the ways that miRNAs are regulated in the pathogenicity signaling pathways are revealed which highlights the roles played by miRNAs in preventing and controlling the harmful effects of the mycotoxins. It is hoped that this review will provide a theoretical basis for the prevention and control of the damage caused by these mycotoxins.

Podophyllotoxin Induces ROS-Mediated Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest in Human Colorectal Cancer Cells via p38 MAPK Signaling

Podophyllotoxin (PT), a lignan compound from the roots and rhizomes of Podophyllum peltatum, has diverse pharmacological activities including anticancer effect in several types of cancer. The molecular mechanism of the anticancer effects of PT on colorectal cancer cells has not been reported yet. In this study, we sought to evaluate the anticancer effect of PT on human colorectal cancer HCT116 cells and identify the detailed molecular mechanism. PT inhibited the growth of cells and colony formation in a concentration-dependent manner and induced apoptosis as determined by the annexin V/7-aminoactinomycin D double staining assay. PT-induced apoptosis was accompanied by cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and an increase in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The effects of PT on the induction of ROS and apoptosis were prevented by pretreatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), indicating that an increase in ROS generation mediates the apoptosis of HCT116 cells induced by PT. Furthermore, Western blot analysis showed that PT upregulated the level of phospho (p)-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). The treatment of SB203580, a p38 inhibitor, strongly prevented the apoptosis induced by PT, suggesting that PT-induced apoptosis involved the p38 MAPK signaling pathway. In addition, PT induced the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and multi-caspase activation. The results suggested that PT induced cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and apoptosis through the p38 MAPK signaling pathway by upregulating ROS in HCT116 cells.

Scutellarin-induced A549 cell apoptosis depends on activation of the transforming growth factor-β1/smad2/ROS/caspase-3 pathway

Scutellarin plays an anti-tumor role in A549 lung cancer cells, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. In this study, scutellarin was used to treat A549 cells for 12, 24, and 48 h, followed by the addition of Tempo, a selective scavenger of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and SB431542, a transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 receptor inhibitor. A dihydroethidium fluorescence probe was used to measure the intracellular ROS level, Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) was used to detect cell viability, and flow cytometry was performed to examine apoptosis. Western blots were used to detect the total protein level of TGF-β1, p-smad2, and cleaved caspase-3 in A549 cells. The results showed that scutellarin significantly inhibited cell viability and increased apoptosis. Scutellarin also promoted intracellular ROS production, TGF-β1/smad2 signaling pathway activation, and cleaved caspase-3 expression, which was partly reversed by Tempo. Moreover, scutellarin-induced intracellular ROS production and cleaved caspase-3 expression were inhibited by blocking the TGF-β1/smad2 pathway with SB431542. In conclusion, scutellarin promoted apoptosis and intracellular ROS accumulation, which could be abrogated by Tempo and SB431542 treatment in A549 cells. Our study indicated that scutellarin induced A549 cell apoptosis via the TGF-β1/smad2/ROS/caspase-3 pathway.

Transcriptional Profiling of Porcine Blastocysts Produced In Vitro in a Chemically Defined Culture Medium

The development of chemically defined media is a growing trend in in vitro embryo production (IVP). Recently, traditional undefined culture medium with bovine serum albumin (BSA) has been successfully replaced by a chemically defined medium using substances with embryotrophic properties such as platelet factor 4 (PF4). Although the use of this medium sustains IVP, the impact of defined media on the embryonic transcriptome has not been fully elucidated. This study analyzed the transcriptome of porcine IVP blastocysts, cultured in defined (PF4 group) and undefined media (BSA group) by microarrays. In vivo-derived blastocysts (IVV group) were used as a standard of maximum embryo quality. The results showed no differentially expressed genes (DEG) between the PF4 and BSA groups. However, a total of 2780 and 2577 DEGs were detected when comparing the PF4 or the BSA group with the IVV group, respectively. Most of these genes were common in both in vitro groups (2132) and present in some enriched pathways, such as cell cycle, lysosome and/or metabolic pathways. These results show that IVP conditions strongly affect embryo transcriptome and that the defined culture medium with PF4 is a guaranteed replacement for traditional culture with BSA.