Regulatory B Cells Dysregulated T Cell Function in an IL-35-Dependent Way in Patients With Chronic Hepatitis B

Regulatory B cells, the key regulator to induce immune tolerance in organ transplantation

In solid organ transplantation, especially renal transplantation, for the induction of immune tolerance, accumulating evidence has revealed that Regulatory B cells (Breg) play a crucial role in stimulating immune tolerance, alleviating immune responses, and improving graft survival. We describe the heterogeneous nature of Bregs, focusing on their defining surface markers and regulatory functions. Meanwhile, the major cytokine secretion function and the correlation between Breg and Treg or other immune checkpoints to balance the immune responses are addressed. Furthermore, we summarized the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways or costimulatory stimuli for the differentiation from naïve B cells. More importantly, we summarized the progression of the immune tolerance induction role of Breg in solid organ (kidney, liver, heart, lung, and islet) transplantation. This is an up-to-date review from the origin of Breg to the function of Breg in solid organ transplantation and how it induces immune tolerance in both murine models and human solid organ transplantation.

Revealing the role of regulatory b cells in cancer: development, function and treatment significance

B cells are essential components of the immune response, primarily recognized for their ability to produce antibodies. However, emerging research reveals their important roles in regulating immune responses and influencing tumor development, independent of antibodies. The connection between tumor progression and alterations in the tumor microenvironment is well-established, as immune infiltrating cells can enhance the survival of tumor cells by modifying their surroundings. Despite this, the majority of studies have focused on T cells and macrophages, creating a gap in our understanding of B cells. Regulatory B cells (Bregs) represent a crucial subpopulation that plays a significant role in maintaining immune balance. They may have a substantial impact on tumor immunity by negatively regulating tumor-infiltrating immune cells. This paper reviews the existing literature on Bregs, examining their development, phenotypes, functions, and the mechanisms through which they exert their regulatory effects. Furthermore, we highlight their potential interventional roles and prognostic significance in cancer therapy. By addressing the current gaps in knowledge regarding Bregs within tumors, we hope to inspire further research that could lead to innovative cancer treatments and improved outcomes for patients.

The circulating IL-35+ regulatory B cells are associated with thyroid associated opthalmopathy

BACKGROUND

Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO) is the most common orbital disease in adults, potentially leading to disfigurement and visual impairment. However, the causes of TAO are not fully understood. IL-35+B cells are a newly identified regulatory B cells (Bregs) in maintaining immune balance in various autoimmune diseases. Yet, the influence of IL-35+Bregs in TAO remains unexplored.

METHODS

This study enrolled 36 healthy individuals and 14 TAO patients. We isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells and stimulated them with IL-35 and CpG for 48 h. Flow cytometry was used to measure the percentages of IL-35+Bregs.

RESULTS

The percentage of circulating IL-35+Bregs was higher in TAO patients, and this increase correlated positively with disease activity. IL-35 significantly increased the generation of IL-35+Bregs in healthy individuals. However, B cells from TAO patients exhibited potential impairment in transitioning into IL-35+Breg phenotype under IL-35 stimulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest a potential role of IL-35+Bregs in the development of TAO, opening new avenues for understanding disease mechanisms and developing therapeutic approaches.

The Role of Interleukins in HBV Infection: A Narrative Review

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a worldwide medical issue with significant morbidity and mortality, as it is the main cause of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Both innate and adaptive immune responses play a key role in HBV replication and suppression. Recently, the pathophysiological function of interleukins (IL) in the natural course of HBV has gained much attention as a result of the broad use of anti-interleukin agents for a variety of autoimmune diseases and the accompanying risk of HBV reactivation. We present a narrative review regarding the role of IL in HBV infection. Collectively, the pro-inflammatory ILs, namely IL-1, IL-5, IL-6, IL-12 and IL-21, seem to play a critical role in the suppression of HBV replication. In contrast, the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10, IL-23 and IL-35 probably act as HBV replication enhancers, while IL-17 has been correlated with HBV-related liver injury. Interestingly enough, IL-2, IL-4 and IL-12 have been tried as therapeutic options against HBV infection with contradictory results. Lastly, the role of IL-22 remains largely ill defined, although preliminary data suggest that it may play a significant role in HBV replication, proliferation and subsequent liver damage.

Immune response and treatment targets of chronic hepatitis B virus infection: innate and adaptive immunity

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major global public health risk that threatens human life and health, although the number of vaccinated people has increased. The clinical outcome of HBV infection depends on the complex interplay between viral replication and the host immune response. Innate immunity plays an important role in the early stages of the disease but retains no long-term immune memory. However, HBV evades detection by the host innate immune system through stealth. Therefore, adaptive immunity involving T and B cells is crucial for controlling and clearing HBV infections that lead to liver inflammation and damage. The persistence of HBV leads to immune tolerance owing to immune cell dysfunction, T cell exhaustion, and an increase in suppressor cells and cytokines. Although significant progress has been made in HBV treatment in recent years, the balance between immune tolerance, immune activation, inflammation, and fibrosis in chronic hepatitis B remains unknown, making a functional cure difficult to achieve. Therefore, this review focuses on the important cells involved in the innate and adaptive immunity of chronic hepatitis B that target the host immune system and identifies treatment strategies.

The Multiple Facets and Disorders of B Cell Functions in Hepatitis B Virus Infection

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection continues to be a global public health burden. B cells play a pivotal role in mediating HBV clearance and can participate in the development of anti-HBV adaptive immune responses through multiple mechanisms, such as antibody production, antigen presentation, and immune regulation. However, B cell phenotypic and functional disorders are frequently observed during chronic HBV infection, suggesting the necessity of targeting the disordered anti-HBV B cell responses to design and test new immune therapeutic strategies for the treatment of chronic HBV infection. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of the multiple roles of B cells in mediating HBV clearance and pathogenesis as well as the latest developments in understanding the immune dysfunction of B cells in chronic HBV infection. Additionally, we discuss novel immune therapeutic strategies that aim to enhance anti-HBV B cell responses for curing chronic HBV infection.

Hepatitis B functional cure and immune response

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a hepatotropic virus, which damage to hepatocytes is not direct, but through the immune system. HBV specific CD4+ T cells can induce HBV specific B cells and CD8+ T cells. HBV specific B cells produce antibodies to control HBV infection, while HBV specific CD8+ T cells destroy infected hepatocytes. One of the reasons for the chronicity of HBV infection is that it cannot effectively activate adoptive immunity and the function of virus specific immune cells is exhausted. Among them, virus antigens (including HBV surface antigen, e antigen, core antigen, etc.) can inhibit the function of immune cells and induce immune tolerance. Long term nucleos(t)ide analogues (NAs) treatment and inactive HBsAg carriers with low HBsAg level may "wake up" immune cells with abnormal function due to the decrease of viral antigen level in blood and liver, and the specific immune function of HBV will recover to a certain extent, thus becoming the "dominant population" for functional cure. In turn, the functional cure will further promote the recovery of HBV specific immune function, which is also the theoretical basis for complete cure of hepatitis B. In the future, the complete cure of chronic HBV infection must be the combination of three drugs: inhibiting virus replication, reducing surface antigen levels and specific immune regulation, among which specific immunotherapy is indispensable. Here we review the relationship, mechanism and clinical significance between the cure of hepatitis B and immune system.

Mesenchymal stem cells-based therapy in liver diseases

Multiple immune cells and their products in the liver together form a complex and unique immune microenvironment, and preclinical models have demonstrated the importance of imbalances in the hepatic immune microenvironment in liver inflammatory diseases and immunocompromised liver diseases. Various immunotherapies have been attempted to modulate the hepatic immune microenvironment for the purpose of treating liver diseases. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have a comprehensive and plastic immunomodulatory capacity. On the one hand, they have been tried for the treatment of inflammatory liver diseases because of their excellent immunosuppressive capacity; On the other hand, MSCs have immune-enhancing properties in immunocompromised settings and can be modified into cellular carriers for targeted transport of immune enhancers by genetic modification, physical and chemical loading, and thus they are also used in the treatment of immunocompromised liver diseases such as chronic viral infections and hepatocellular carcinoma. In this review, we discuss the immunological basis and recent strategies of MSCs for the treatment of the aforementioned liver diseases. Specifically, we update the immune microenvironment of the liver and summarize the distinct mechanisms of immune microenvironment imbalance in inflammatory diseases and immunocompromised liver diseases, and how MSCs can fully exploit their immunotherapeutic role in liver diseases with both immune imbalance patterns.

B10 Cells Are Associated With Clinical Prognosis During Adult Symptomatic Acute HBV Infection

There are few reports about the role of B10 cells in acute hepatitis B (AHB) infection. In this study, based on 48 acute hepatitis B infected patients, we analysis the correlation of B10 cells with HBV clinical prognosis. The results showed that B10 was positively correlated with HBsAg and HBeAg and inversely correlated with anti-HBs. The level of B10 in one week before HBsAg clearance was significantly lower than 2 weeks prior to HBsAg clearance and after 1-2 weeks of HBsAg clearance. B10 cell frequency displayed no correlation with HBV DNA; however, it showed significant temporal synchronization with hepatic inflammatory markers such as ALT. B10 level also associated with hospitalization time. These results indicated that B10 is closely related to the clinical prognosis of acute HBV infection.

Interleukin-35: Structure, Function and Its Impact on Immune-Related Diseases

The balance between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory immune responses is maintained through immunoregulatory cell populations and immunosuppressive cytokines. Interleukin-35 (IL-35), an inhibitory cytokine that belongs to the IL-12 family, is capable of potently suppressing T cell proliferation and inducing IL-35-producing induced regulatory T cells (iTr35) to limit inflammatory responses. Over the past decade, a growing number of studies have indicated that IL-35 plays an important role in controlling immune-related disorders, including autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, and cancer. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about the biology of IL-35 and its contribution in different diseases, and we discuss the potential of and barriers to harnessing IL-35 as a clinical biomarker or immunotherapy.

Peripheral Immune Cells Exhaustion and Functional Impairment in Patients With Chronic Hepatitis B

After infection of hepatitis B virus (HBV), the virus induces a variety of immune disorders in the host, leading to immune escape and, finally, the chronicity of the disease. This study investigated immune cell defects and functional impairment in patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). We analyzed the percentage, function, and phenotypes of various immune cell subpopulations in the peripheral blood along with the concentrations of cytokines in the plasma. We compared the results between patients with CHB and healthy individuals. It was found that in patients with CHB, the cell function was impaired and, there was increased expression of inhibitory receptors, such as NKG2A and PD-1 in both NK and T cells. The impairment of function was mainly in cytokine secretion, and the cytotoxicity was not significantly diminished. We also found that the proportion of dendritic cells (DC) decreased and regulatory B cells (Breg) increased in CHB. In addition, the Breg cells were negatively correlated with T cell cytokine and positively correlated with ALT and HBV viral load. Taken together, various disorders and functional impairments were found in the immune cells of peripheral blood in CHB patients, especially NK and T cells. These cells showed exhaustion and the increase of regulatory B cells may be one of the reasons for this phenomenon.