Proteomics and Organoid Culture Reveal the Underlying Pathogenesis of Hashimoto's Thyroiditis

Impact of Hashimoto's thyroiditis on radiofrequency ablation for papillary thyroid micro-carcinoma: a cohort study of 391 patients

PURPOSE

To assess the impact of Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) on radiofrequency ablation (RFA) outcomes for papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC).

METHODS

A retrospective study of 391 PTMC patients treated with RFA from March 2017 to August 2020, divided by HT accompanied or not. Ablation area size, volume reduction ratio (VRR), lesion disappearance, complications, and recurrences were analyzed.

RESULTS

391 patients (mean age, 41.3 ± 11.2 [SD]; 317 women, 110 with HT) were evaluated. The follow-up time was 2 years. HT+ PTMC patients (Group A) exhibited larger ablation diameters at 1st and 3rd month post-RFA. In comparison, PTMC patients (Group B) had larger diameters at 1st and 3rd months but smaller at 6th months, returning to baseline around 6th month in Group B and 9th month in Group A. VRRs in Group B were greater than Group A at 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th and 15th month, all p < 0.05). The Kaplan-Meier curves revealed a slower lesion disappearance rate in A (12th) compared to B group (9th). Complication and recurrence rates were similar for both groups (4.4% and 0.8% overall, Group B vs Group A: 4.3% vs 4.6%, p = 0.905; 0.4% vs 1.8%, p = 0.192).

CONCLUSION

HT delays the resorption of PTMC lesions following RFA, but it does not impact the procedure's effectiveness or safety. Regardless of HT status, RFA remains a viable alternative to surgery for PTMC.

Patient-Derived Organoids: A Game-Changer in Personalized Cancer Medicine

Research on cancer therapies has benefited from predictive tools capable of simulating treatment response and other disease characteristics in a personalized manner, in particular three-dimensional cell culture models. Such models include tumor-derived spheroids, multicellular spheroids including organotypic multicellular spheroids, and tumor-derived organoids. Additionally, organoids can be grown from various cancer cell types, such as pluripotent stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, progenitor cells, and adult stem cells. Although patient-derived xenografts and genetically engineered mouse models replicate human disease in vivo, organoids are less expensive, less labor intensive, and less time-consuming, all-important aspects in high-throughput settings. Like in vivo models, organoids mimic the three-dimensional structure, cellular heterogeneity, and functions of primary tissues, with the advantage of representing the normal oxygen conditions of patient organs. In this review, we summarize the use of organoids in disease modeling, drug discovery, toxicity testing, and precision oncology. We also summarize the current clinical trials using organoids.

Organoids: development and applications in disease models, drug discovery, precision medicine, and regenerative medicine

Organoids are miniature, highly accurate representations of organs that capture the structure and unique functions of specific organs. Although the field of organoids has experienced exponential growth, driven by advances in artificial intelligence, gene editing, and bioinstrumentation, a comprehensive and accurate overview of organoid applications remains necessary. This review offers a detailed exploration of the historical origins and characteristics of various organoid types, their applications-including disease modeling, drug toxicity and efficacy assessments, precision medicine, and regenerative medicine-as well as the current challenges and future directions of organoid research. Organoids have proven instrumental in elucidating genetic cell fate in hereditary diseases, infectious diseases, metabolic disorders, and malignancies, as well as in the study of processes such as embryonic development, molecular mechanisms, and host-microbe interactions. Furthermore, the integration of organoid technology with artificial intelligence and microfluidics has significantly advanced large-scale, rapid, and cost-effective drug toxicity and efficacy assessments, thereby propelling progress in precision medicine. Finally, with the advent of high-performance materials, three-dimensional printing technology, and gene editing, organoids are also gaining prominence in the field of regenerative medicine. Our insights and predictions aim to provide valuable guidance to current researchers and to support the continued advancement of this rapidly developing field.

Combined transcriptome and microbiome analysis reveals the thyrotoxic effects of PM2.5 in female rats

Pervasive environmental pollutants, specifically particulate matter (PM2.5), possess the potential to disrupt homeostasis of female thyroid hormone (TH). However, the precise mechanism underlying this effect remains unclear. In this study, we established a model of PM2.5-induced thyroid damage in female rats through intratracheal instillation and employed histopathological and molecular biological methods to observe the toxic effects of PM2.5 on the thyroid gland. Transcriptome gene analysis and 16S rRNA sequencing were utilized to investigate the impact of PM2.5 exposure on the female rat thyroid gland. Furthermore, based on the PM2.5-induced toxic model in female rats, we evaluated its effects on intestinal microbiota, TH levels, and indicators of thyroid function. The findings revealed that PM2.5 exposure induced histopathological damage to thyroid tissue by disrupting thyroid hormone levels (total T3 [TT3], (P < 0.05); total T4 [TT4], (P < 0.05); and thyrotropin hormone [TSH], (P < 0.05)) and functional indices (urine iodine [UI], P > 0.05), thus further inducing histopathological injuries. Transcriptome analysis identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs), primarily concentrated in interleukin 17 (IL-17), forkhead box O (FOXO), and other signaling pathways. Furthermore, exposure to PM2.5 altered the composition and abundance of intestinal microbes. Transcriptome and microbiome analyses demonstrated a correlation between the DEGs within these pathways and the flora present in the intestines. Moreover, 16 S rRNA gene sequencing analysis or DEGs combined with thyroid function analysis revealed that exposure to PM2.5 significantly induced thyroid hormone imbalance. We further identified key DEGs involved in thyroid function-relevant pathways, which were validated using molecular biology methods for clinical applications. In conclusion, the homeostasis of the "gut-thyroid" axis may serve as the underlying mechanism for PM2.5-induced thyrotoxicity in female rats.

Bioengineered in vitro three-dimensional tumor models in endocrine cancers

Graphical abstract

Abstract

Endocrine tumors are a heterogeneous cluster of malignancies that originate from cells that can secrete hormones. Examples include, but are not limited to, thyroid cancer, adrenocortical carcinoma, and neuroendocrine tumors. Many endocrine tumors are relatively slow to proliferate, and as such, they often do not respond well to common antiproliferative chemotherapies. Therefore, increasing attention has been given to targeted therapies and immunotherapies in these diseases. However, in contrast to other cancers, many endocrine tumors are relatively rare, and as a result, less is understood about their biology, including specific targets for intervention. Our limited understanding of such tumors is in part due to a limitation in model systems that accurately recapitulate and enable mechanistic exploration of these tumors. While mouse models and 2D cell cultures exist for some endocrine tumors, these models often may not accurately model nuances of human endocrine tumors. Mice differ from human endocrine physiology and 2D cell cultures fail to recapitulate the heterogeneity and 3D architectures of in vivo tumors. To complement these traditional cancer models, bioengineered 3D tumor models, such as organoids and tumor-on-a-chip systems, have advanced rapidly in the past decade. However, these technologies have only recently been applied to most endocrine tumors. In this review we provide descriptions of these platforms, focusing on thyroid, adrenal, and neuroendocrine tumors and how they have been and are being applied in the context of endocrine tumors.

Advances in Thyroid Organoids Research and Applications

INTRODUCTION

Organoids are three-dimensional cellular aggregates derived from stem cells or primary tissues that can self-organize into organotypic structures and showcase the physiological functions of that organ. Organoids typically comprise multiple organ-specific cell types that are responsible for organ function in vivo. They may also incorporate various cellular and molecular stromal components to recapitulate the in vivo microenvironment of the target organ.

METHODS

All articles related to thyroid-like organs were synthesized. Articles published between 1959 and 2023 were assessed, categorized, and analyzed using relevant keywords.

RESULTS

As such, organoids provide a model of greater physiological relevance than 2D cell culture for basic and translational research. Murine and human organoids of the thyroid have been established from embryonic stem cells (ESCs), pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) and from various healthy or diseased thyroid tissues. These thyroid organoids have been used in basic and translation research on thyroid-related diseases including hyperthyroidism, Graves' disease, and Hashimoto's thyroiditis. In addition, organoids derived from patients with thyroid cancer retain histopathological features and mutational profile of the original tumor. These patient-derived organoids have been successfully used in in vitro evaluation of drug response of individual patients, demonstrating their potential application in personalized treatment of thyroid cancer.

CONCLUSION

In this review article, we have discussed various techniques for establishing thyroid organoids and their applications in thyroid-related diseases as disease models, regenerative medicines, or a tool for drug testing.

Therapeutic Potential of CRISPR/Cas in Hashimoto's Thyroiditis: A Comprehensive Review

Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) is a commonly occurring illness of autoimmune endocrine origin. It is usually present in the pediatric age group along with other well-known diseases, such as type 1 insulin-dependent diabetes. The defining feature of this disease is the immune-- mediated attack on the thyroid gland resulting in the destruction of thyroid tissues and cells. Given that HT frequently affects family members, it is well-recognized that individuals are genetically predisposed to this disease. Patients with HT also display a significantly increased risk for several different cancers, justifying the eminent need for the development of therapies for managing and treating HT. Gene editing has made several advancements in the field of molecular biology and has turned out to become a promising approach to correct several autoimmune diseases. Currently, CRISPR/Cas, a nuclease-based editing technique, is publicized as a promising tool for curing several genetic diseases and cancers. However, very limited research has been conducted as of now on autoimmune disease management and cure via CRISPR/Cas technique. This review provides an account of the potential candidate genes associated with Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and only a few animal and human models have been generated via the CRISPR/Cas gene editing technique. Mouse models of autoimmune thyroiditis generated through the CRISPR/Cas gene editing technique by targeting the candidate genes will provide us with a deeper insight into the pathophysiology of HT and further pave the way for the immunomodulation of HT via gene editing.

Advances in the Construction and Application of Thyroid Organoids

Organoids are complex multicellular structures that stem cells self-organize in three-dimensional (3D) cultures into anatomical structures and functional units similar to those seen in the organs from which they originate. This review describes the construction of thyroid organoids and the research progress that has occurred in models of thyroid-related disease. As a novel tool for modeling in a 3D multicellular environment, organoids help provide some useful references for the study of the pathogenesis of thyroid disease.

The Role of CCL3 in the Pathogenesis of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease of unexplained causes. Its pathological features include synovial tissue hyperplasia, inflammatory cell infiltration in joint cavity fluid, cartilage bone destruction, and joint deformation. C-C motif chemokine ligand 3 (CCL3) belongs to inflammatory cell chemokine. It is highly expressed in inflammatory immune cells. Increasingly, studies have shown that CCL3 can promote the migration of inflammatory factors to synovial tissue, the destruction of bone and joint, angiogenesis, and participate in the pathogenesis of RA. These symptoms indicate that the expression of CCL3 is highly correlated with RA disease. Therefore, this paper reviews the possible mechanism of CCL3 in the pathogenesis of RA, which may provide some new insights for the diagnosis and treatment of RA.

Organoids: The current status and biomedical applications

Organoids are three-dimensional (3D) miniaturized versions of organs or tissues that are derived from cells with stem potential and can self-organize and differentiate into 3D cell masses, recapitulating the morphology and functions of their in vivo counterparts. Organoid culture is an emerging 3D culture technology, and organoids derived from various organs and tissues, such as the brain, lung, heart, liver, and kidney, have been generated. Compared with traditional bidimensional culture, organoid culture systems have the unique advantage of conserving parental gene expression and mutation characteristics, as well as long-term maintenance of the function and biological characteristics of the parental cells in vitro. All these features of organoids open up new opportunities for drug discovery, large-scale drug screening, and precision medicine. Another major application of organoids is disease modeling, and especially various hereditary diseases that are difficult to model in vitro have been modeled with organoids by combining genome editing technologies. Herein, we introduce the development and current advances in the organoid technology field. We focus on the applications of organoids in basic biology and clinical research, and also highlight their limitations and future perspectives. We hope that this review can provide a valuable reference for the developments and applications of organoids.

Iodide Excess Inhibits Thyroid Hormone Synthesis Pathway Involving XBP1-Mediated Regulation

Iodine is an essential micronutrient for producing thyroid hormone (TH); however, iodide excess can lead to adverse thyroidal effects. Unfortunately, the lack of a proper in vitro model system hampered the studies of the effect of iodide excess on thyroid physiology and pathology. Here, we demonstrated that excessive iodide intake downregulated the genes related to TH synthesis in the thyroids of mice. Since sodium iodide has no effect on these genes in cultured cell lines, we developed a three-dimensional (3D) culture system to enable the murine thyrocytes to form organoids in vitro with thyroid follicle-like structures and function and found that the in vivo effect of iodide excess could be mimicked in these thyroid organoids. Our data indicate that iodide excess mainly activated the XBP1-mediated unfolded protein response in both murine thyroid and thyroid organoids, while activation of XBP1 was able to mimic the sodium iodide effect on genes for the synthesis of TH in murine thyroid organoids. Lastly, our results suggest that XBP1 might transcriptionally repress the genes involved in the synthesis of TH. Based on these findings, we propose that iodide excess inhibits the transcription of genes related to TH synthesis through a mechanism involving XBP1-mediated action.

PARP1 inhibition enhances reactive oxygen species on gut microbiota

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) plays a key role in genome stability by modulating DNA-damage responses. Activated by DNA interruptions through ultraviolet (UV) exposure, PARylation is synthesized by PARP1 and serves as a survival mechanism for cancer and metabolic diseases. Several strategies including ROS and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) function in host defenses, while the targeted tissue and mechanism under DNA damage are unknown. Here, we show that DNA damage induces responses specifically in the gut tissue. The knockdown of PARP1 reduces the activation of PARylation. Parp1 knockdown under DNA damage results in over-accumulated ROS and secretion of AMPs through the regulation of Relish, a subunit of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Double-knockdown of Parp1 and Relish specifically in the gut inhibits AMP secretion. In conclusion, the host defense is achieved through ROS accumulation rather than the AMPs under DNA damage. In contrast, the knockdown of PARP1 exacerbates ROS accumulation to a harmful level. Under this circumstance, NF-κb targeted AMP secretion is provoked for host defense. Microbiome and functional analysis provide evidence for the hazard of DNA damage and show variations in the metabolic pathways following Parp1 inhibition. Our findings suggest the notion that PARP1 inhibition contributes to ROS accumulation under DNA damage and its role in NF-κb activation for host defense.

Plasma Metabolomics Reveals β-Glucan Improves Muscle Strength and Exercise Capacity in Athletes

The present study aimed to assess the changes in muscle strength and plasma metabolites in athletes with β-glucan supplementation. A total of 29 athletes who met the inclusion criteria were recruited for this study (ChiCTR2200058091) and were randomly divided into a placebo group (n = 14) and β-glucan group (n = 15). During the trial, the experimental group received β-glucan supplementation (2 g/d β-glucan) for 4 weeks and the control group received an equal dose of placebo supplementation (0 g/d β-glucan), with both groups maintaining their regular diet and exercise habits during the trial. The athletes’ exercise performance, muscle strength, and plasma metabolome changes were analyzed after 4 weeks of β-glucan supplementation. The results showed a significant increase in mean grip strength (kg), right hand grip strength (kg), left triceps strength (kg), and upper limb muscle mass (kg) in the experimental group after the 4-week intervention compared to the preintervention period (p < 0.05). A comparison of the difference between the two groups after the intervention showed that there were significant differences between the control group and the experimental group in mean grip strength (kg) and right-hand grip strength (kg) (p < 0.05). Athletes in the experimental group showed significant improvements in 1 min double rocking jump (pcs), VO2max (ml/kg-min) (p < 0.05). The β-glucan intake increased the creatine-related pathway metabolites in plasma. Overall, these results suggest that 4 weeks of β-glucan supplementation can improve muscle strength in athletes, with the potential to increase aerobic endurance and enhance immune function, possibly by affecting creatine-related pathways.

The Immune Landscape of Papillary Thyroid Cancer in the Context of Autoimmune Thyroiditis

Simple Summary

The association between papillary thyroid cancer and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis went through a long-standing human debate recently elucidated by the establishment of a novel mouse model. Papillary thyroid carcinoma is an excellent model for studying the tumor immune microenvironment because it is naturally accompanied by immune cells, making it a good candidate for the treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Abstract

Papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) often co-occurs with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, an association that has long been reported in clinical studies, remaining controversial. Experimental evidence has recently shown that pre-existing thyroiditis has a beneficial effect on PTC growth and progression by a distinctive expansion of effector memory CD8 T cells. Although the link between inflammation and PTC might involve different components of the immune system, a deep characterization of them which includes T cells, B cells and tertiary lymphoid structures, Mye-loid cells, Neutrophils, NK cells and dendritic cells will be desirable. The present review article considers the role of the adaptive and innate immune response surrounding PTC in the context of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. This review will focus on the current knowledge by in vivo and in vitro studies specifically performed on animals’ models; thyroid cancer cells and human samples including (i) the dual role of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes; (ii) the emerging role of B cells and tertiary lymphoid structures; (iii) the role of myeloid cells, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells; (iv) the current knowledge of the molecular biomarkers implicated in the complex link between thyroiditis and PTC and the potential implication of cancer immunotherapy in PTC patients in the context of thyroiditis.

Proteomic profiling of thyroid tissue in patients with obesity and benign diffuse goiter

Goiter is a term to describe the enlargement of the thyroid gland. The pathophysiology and molecular changes behind development of diffuse benign goiter remains unclear. The present study targeted to identify and describe the alterations in the thyroid tissue proteome from patients (obese euthyroid) with benign diffuse goiter (BDG) using proteomics approach. Thyroid tissue samples, from 7 age and sex matched, patients with BDG and 7 controls were obtained at the time of surgery. An untargeted proteomic analysis of the thyroid tissue was performed out utilizing two-dimensional difference (2D-DIGE) in gel electrophoresis followed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) for identification of the proteins. Progenesis software was used to identify changes in expression of tissue proteins and found statistically significant differences in abundance in a total of 90 proteins, 46 up and 44 down (1.5-fold change, ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05) in BDG compared to the control group. Bioinformatic analysis using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) identified dysregulation of signalling pathways linked to ERK1/2, Glutathione peroxidase and NADPH oxidase associated to organismal injury and abnormalities, endocrine system disorders and cancer. The thyroid tissue proteome in patients with BDG revealed a significant decrease in thyroglobulin along with dysregulation of glycolysis and an increase in prooxidant peroxidase enzymes. Dysregulation of metabolic pathways related to glycolysis, redox proteins, and the proteins associated with maintaining the cytoskeletal structure of the thyrocytes was also identified.