A Spontaneous Model of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Provides Evidence of MOG-Specific B Cell Recruitment and Clonal Expansion

T-B cell cooperation in ectopic lymphoid follicles propagates CNS autoimmunity

Meningeal ectopic lymphoid follicle (eLF)-like structures have been described in multiple sclerosis, but their role in central nervous system (CNS) autoimmunity is unclear. Here, we used a T helper 17 (TH17) adoptive transfer experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model featuring formation of eLFs. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed that clusters of activated B cells and B1/marginal zone-like B cells were overrepresented in the CNS and identified B cells poised for undergoing germinal center reactions and clonal expansion in the CNS. Using intravital imaging to directly visualize TH17-B cell interactions, we demonstrated that T and B cells form long-lasting antigen-specific contacts in meningeal eLFs that result in reactivation of autoreactive T cells. CNS T cells depended on CNS B cells to maintain a proinflammatory cytokine profile. Our study reveals that extensive T-B cell cooperation occurs in meningeal eLFs, promoting both B cell differentiation and T cell reactivation, and may thereby propagate smoldering inflammation in the CNS.

Epstein-Barr virus infection promotes T cell dysregulation in a humanized mouse model of multiple sclerosis

Latent infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a strong risk factor for the development of multiple sclerosis (MS), although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. To investigate this association, we induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in immunodeficient mice reconstituted with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from individuals with or without a history of EBV infection and/or relapsing MS (RRMS). HuPBMC EAE mice generated from EBV-seronegative healthy donors were less susceptible to developing severe neurological symptoms than healthy EBV-seropositive and RRMS donor groups. Donor EBV seropositivity and RRMS diagnosis were associated with a significant increase in the number of central nervous system (CNS) infiltrating effector T cells due to enhanced proliferation of proinflammatory T cells and limited expansion of regulatory T cells. The data indicate that a history of EBV infection, further compounded by a diagnosis of RRMS, promotes T cell-mediated xenogeneic CNS disease in a humanized mouse model of MS.

Gut microbiota in multiple sclerosis and animal models

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic central nervous system (CNS) neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disease marked by a host immune reaction that targets and destroys the neuronal myelin sheath. MS and correlating animal disease models show comorbidities, including intestinal barrier disruption and alterations of the commensal microbiome. It is accepted that diet plays a crucial role in shaping the microbiota composition and overall gastrointestinal (GI) tract health, suggesting an interplay between nutrition and neuroinflammation via the gut-brain axis. Unfortunately, poor host health and diet lead to microbiota modifications that could lead to significant responses in the host, including inflammation and neurobehavioral changes. Beneficial microbial metabolites are essential for host homeostasis and inflammation control. This review will highlight the importance of the gut microbiota in the context of host inflammatory responses in MS and MS animal models. Additionally, microbial community restoration and how it affects MS and GI barrier integrity will be discussed.

CNS Resident Innate Immune Cells: Guardians of CNS Homeostasis

Although the CNS has been considered for a long time an immune-privileged organ, it is now well known that both the parenchyma and non-parenchymal tissue (meninges, perivascular space, and choroid plexus) are richly populated in resident immune cells. The advent of more powerful tools for multiplex immunophenotyping, such as single-cell RNA sequencing technique and upscale multiparametric flow and mass spectrometry, helped in discriminating between resident and infiltrating cells and, above all, the different spectrum of phenotypes distinguishing border-associated macrophages. Here, we focus our attention on resident innate immune players and their primary role in both CNS homeostasis and pathological neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, two key interconnected aspects of the immunopathology of multiple sclerosis.

Role of autoreactive Tc17 cells in the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Background

The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE—an animal model of MS) is primarily mediated by T cells. However, recent studies have only focused on interleukin (IL)‐17‐secreting CD4+ T‐helper cells, also known as Th17 cells. This study aimed to compare Th17 cells and IL‐17‐secreting CD8+ T‐cytotoxic cells (Tc17) in the context of MS/EAE.

Methods

Female C57BL/6 mice were immunized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptides 35–55 (MOG35–55), pertussis toxin, and complete Freund's adjuvant to establish the EAE animal model. T cells were isolated from the spleen (12–14 days postimmunization). CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were purified using isolation kit and then differentiated into Th17 and Tc17, respectively, using MOG35–55 and IL‐23. The secretion levels of interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ) and IL‐17 were measured via enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay using cultured CD4+ and CD8+ T cell supernatants. The pathogenicity of Tc17 and Th17 cells was assessed through adoptive transfer (tEAE), with the clinical course assessed using an EAE score (0–5). Hematoxylin and eosin as well as Luxol fast blue staining were used to examine the spinal cord. Purified CD8+ CD3+ and CD4+ CD3+ cells differentiated into Tc17 and Th17 cells, respectively, were stimulated with MOG35–55 peptide for proliferation assays.

Results

The results showed that Tc17 cells (15,951 ± 1985 vs. 55,709 ± 4196 cpm; p < 0.050) exhibited a weaker response to highest dose (20 μg/mL) MOG35–55 than Th17 cells. However, this response was not dependent on Th17 cells. After the 48 h stimulation, at the highest dose (20 μg/mL) of MOG35–55. Tc17 cells secreted lower levels of IFN‐γ (280.00 ± 15.00 vs. 556.67 ± 15.28 pg/mL, p < 0.050) and IL‐17 (102.67 ± 5.86 pg/mL vs. 288.33 ± 12.58 pg/mL; p < 0.050) than Th17 cells. Similar patterns were observed for IFN‐γ secretion at 96 and 144 h. Furthermore, Tc17 cell‐induced tEAE mice exhibited similar EAE scores to Th17 cell‐induced tEAE mice and also showed similar inflammation and demyelination.

Conclusion

The degree of pathogenicity of Tc17 cells in EAE is lower than that of Th17 cells. Future investigation on different immune cells and EAE models is warranted to determine the mechanisms underlying MS.

Complete Freund's adjuvant as a confounding factor in multiple sclerosis research

Complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) is used as a standard adjuvant for the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the most commonly used animal model in multiple sclerosis studies. Still, CFA induces glial activation and neuroinflammation on its own and provokes pain. In addition, as CFA contains Mycobacteria, an immune response against bacterial antigens is induced in parallel to the response against central nervous system antigens. Thus, CFA can be considered as a confounding factor in multiple sclerosis-related studies performed on EAE. Here, we discuss the effects of CFA in EAE in detail and present EAE variants induced in experimental animals without the use of CFA. We put forward CFA-free EAE variants as valuable tools for studying multiple sclerosis pathogenesis and therapeutic approaches.

The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis: a series of unfortunate events

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by the chronic inflammatory destruction of myelinated axons in the central nervous system. Several ideas have been put forward to clarify the roles of the peripheral immune system and neurodegenerative events in such destruction. Yet, none of the resulting models appears to be consistent with all the experimental evidence. They also do not answer the question of why MS is exclusively seen in humans, how Epstein-Barr virus contributes to its development but does not immediately trigger it, and why optic neuritis is such a frequent early manifestation in MS. Here we describe a scenario for the development of MS that unifies existing experimental evidence as well as answers the above questions. We propose that all manifestations of MS are caused by a series of unfortunate events that usually unfold over a longer period of time after a primary EBV infection and involve periodic weakening of the blood-brain barrier, antibody-mediated CNS disturbances, accumulation of the oligodendrocyte stress protein αB-crystallin and self-sustaining inflammatory damage.

Delimiting MOGAD as a disease entity using translational imaging

The first formal consensus diagnostic criteria for myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD) were recently proposed. Yet, the distinction of MOGAD-defining characteristics from characteristics of its important differential diagnoses such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and aquaporin-4 antibody seropositive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is still obstructed. In preclinical research, MOG antibody-based animal models were used for decades to derive knowledge about MS. In clinical research, people with MOGAD have been combined into cohorts with other diagnoses. Thus, it remains unclear to which extent the generated knowledge is specifically applicable to MOGAD. Translational research can contribute to identifying MOGAD characteristic features by establishing imaging methods and outcome parameters on proven pathophysiological grounds. This article reviews suitable animal models for translational MOGAD research and the current state and prospect of translational imaging in MOGAD.

A B cell-driven EAE mouse model reveals the impact of B cell-derived cytokines on CNS autoimmunity

In multiple sclerosis (MS), pathogenic T cell responses are known to be important drivers of autoimmune inflammation. However, increasing evidence suggests an additional role for B cells, which may contribute to pathogenesis via antigen presentation and production of proinflammatory cytokines. However, these B cell effector functions are not featured well in classical experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse models. Here, we compared properties of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-specific and polyclonal B cells and developed an adjuvant-free cotransfer EAE mouse model, where highly activated, MOG-specific induced germinal center B cells provide the critical stimulus for disease development. We could show that high levels of MOG-specific immunoglobulin G (IgGs) are not required for EAE development, suggesting that antigen presentation and activation of cognate T cells by B cells may be important for pathogenesis. As our model allows for B cell manipulation prior to transfer, we found that overexpression of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-6 by MOG-specific B cells leads to an accelerated EAE onset accompanied by activation/expansion of the myeloid compartment rather than a changed T cell response. Accordingly, knocking out IL-6 or tumor necrosis factor α in MOG-specific B cells via CRISPR-Cas9 did not affect activation of pathogenic T cells. In summary, we generated a tool to dissect pathogenic B cell effector function in EAE development, which should improve our understanding of pathogenic processes in MS.