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Sun D, Sun W, Tang L, Huang W, Zhang Z. Bacterial Contamination in the Different Parts of Household Washing Machine: New Insights from Chengdu, Western China. Curr Microbiol 2024; 81:114. [PMID: 38478167 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-024-03630-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
The moist and warm environment in the household washing machine provides ideal living conditions for the growth and survival of various microorganisms. However, the biodiversity of bacterial community in the different parts of washing machine from Chinese households has not been clarified. In this study, we assessed the bacterial communities in sealing strip, detergent drawer, inner drum, water filter and greywater of ten domestic washing machines quantitatively and qualitatively in Chengdu, southwestern China. The microbial cultivation results indicated that the washing machines from Chengdu had a severe microbial contamination reflected by large counts on bacteria, fungi and coliform. Furthermore, the sequencing data showed that the different parts displayed distinctive bacterial compositions. At the level of genus, the anaerobic bacteria of Caproiciproducens and Acidipropionibacterium were predominant in sealing strip. Barnesiella, Shinella and Sellimonas were detected as the characteristic bacteria in detergent drawer. The pathogens of Luteibacter and Corynebacterium at the genus level were the dominant bacteria in inner drum and water filter, respectively. The genera of Azospira, Roseococcus, Elstera and Aquicella, which belonged to the pathogenic phylum of Proteobacteria, were identified as bioindicators for the greywater. Gene function analysis on the sequencing data illustrated that the bacteria from washing machines were potentially associated with bacterial infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance. This study shows the bacterial diversity in the different parts of washing machines, providing new clues for bacterial contamination in washing machines from Chinese households.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donglei Sun
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Weilian Sun
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, West China, School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Li Tang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, West China, School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, West China, School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Zunzhen Zhang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, West China, School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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2
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Kok CR, Bram Z, Thissen JB, Horseman TS, Fong KSK, Reichert-Scrivner SA, Paguirigan C, O'Connor K, Thompson K, Scheiber AE, Mabery S, Ngauy V, Uyehara CF, Be NA. The military gear microbiome: risk factors surrounding the warfighter. Appl Environ Microbiol 2024; 90:e0117623. [PMID: 38170999 PMCID: PMC10807412 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01176-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Combat extremity wounds are highly susceptible to contamination from surrounding environmental material. This bioburden could be partially transferred from materials in immediate proximity to the wound, including fragments of the uniform and gear. However, the assessment of the microbial bioburden present on military gear during operational conditions of deployment or training is relatively unexplored. Opportunistic pathogens that can survive on gear represent risk factors for infection following injury, especially following combat blasts, where fibers and other materials are embedded in wounded tissue. We utilized 16S rRNA sequencing to assess the microbiome composition of different military gear types (boot, trouser, coat, and canteen) from two operational environments (training in Hawai'i and deployed in Indonesia) across time (days 0 and 14). We found that microbiome diversity, stability, and composition were dependent on gear type, training location, and sampling timepoint. At day 14, species diversity was significantly higher in Hawai'i samples compared to Indonesia samples for boot, coat, and trouser swabs. In addition, we observed the presence of potential microbial risk factors, as opportunistic pathogenic species, such as Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus, were found to be present in all sample types and in both study sites. These study outcomes will be used to guide the design of antimicrobial materials and uniforms and for infection control efforts following combat blasts and other injuries, thereby improving treatment guidance during military training and deployment.IMPORTANCECombat extremity wounds are vulnerable to contamination from environments of proximity to the warfighter, leading to potential detrimental outcomes such as infection and delayed wound healing. Therefore, microbial surveillance of such environments is necessary to aid the advancement of military safety and preparedness through clinical diagnostics, treatment protocols, and uniform material design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Car Reen Kok
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | | | - James B. Thissen
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - Timothy S. Horseman
- Tripler Army Medical Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
- School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Shalini Mabery
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - Viseth Ngauy
- Tripler Army Medical Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
| | | | - Nicholas A. Be
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
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3
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Chen T, Zhang S, Yang J, Li Y, Kogure E, Zhu Y, Xiong W, Chen E, Shi G. Metabarcoding Analysis of Microorganisms Inside Household Washing Machines in Shanghai, China. Microorganisms 2024; 12:160. [PMID: 38257987 PMCID: PMC10819172 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12010160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Washing machines are one of the tools that bring great convenience to people's daily lives. However, washing machines that have been used for a long time often develop issues such as odor and mold, which can pose health hazards to consumers. There exists a conspicuous gap in our understanding of the microorganisms that inhabit the inner workings of washing machines. In this study, samples were collected from 22 washing machines in Shanghai, China, including both water eluted from different parts of washing machines and biofilms. Quantitative qualitative analysis was performed using fluorescence PCR quantification, and microbial communities were characterized by high-throughput sequencing (HTS). This showed that the microbial communities in all samples were predominantly composed of bacteria. HTS results showed that in the eluted water samples, the bacteria mainly included Pseudomonas, Enhydrobacter, Brevibacterium, and Acinetobacter. Conversely, in the biofilm samples, Enhydrobacter and Brevibacterium were the predominant bacterial microorganisms. Correlation analysis results revealed that microbial colonies in washing machines were significantly correlated with years of use and the type of detergent used to clean the washing machine. As numerous pathogenic microorganisms can be observed in the results, effective preventive measures and future research are essential to mitigate these health problems and ensure the continued safe use of these household appliances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- KAO (China) Research and Development Center, No. 623, Ziri Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 100098, China (Y.Z.); (W.X.); (E.C.)
- National Engineering Research Center for Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214000, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Shu Zhang
- KAO (China) Research and Development Center, No. 623, Ziri Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 100098, China (Y.Z.); (W.X.); (E.C.)
| | - Juan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214000, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Youran Li
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214000, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Eiichi Kogure
- Kao Corporation, 1334, Minato, Wakayama 640-8580, Japan
| | - Ye Zhu
- KAO (China) Research and Development Center, No. 623, Ziri Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 100098, China (Y.Z.); (W.X.); (E.C.)
| | - Weiqi Xiong
- KAO (China) Research and Development Center, No. 623, Ziri Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 100098, China (Y.Z.); (W.X.); (E.C.)
| | - Enhui Chen
- KAO (China) Research and Development Center, No. 623, Ziri Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 100098, China (Y.Z.); (W.X.); (E.C.)
| | - Guiyang Shi
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214000, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
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4
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Satari L, Iglesias A, Porcar M. The Microbiome of Things: Appliances, Machines, and Devices Hosting Artificial Niche-Adapted Microbial Communities. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1507. [PMID: 37375009 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11061507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
As it is the case with natural substrates, artificial surfaces of man-made devices are home to a myriad of microbial species. Artificial products are not necessarily characterized by human-associated microbiomes; instead, they can present original microbial populations shaped by specific environmental-often extreme-selection pressures. This review provides a detailed insight into the microbial ecology of a range of artificial devices, machines, and appliances, which we argue are specific microbial niches that do not necessarily fit in the "build environment" microbiome definition. Instead, we propose here the Microbiome of Things (MoT) concept analogous to the Internet of Things (IoT) because we believe it may be useful to shed light on human-made, but not necessarily human-related, unexplored microbial niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Satari
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology (I2SysBio), Universitat de València-CSIC, 46980 Paterna, Spain
| | - Alba Iglesias
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology (I2SysBio), Universitat de València-CSIC, 46980 Paterna, Spain
| | - Manuel Porcar
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology (I2SysBio), Universitat de València-CSIC, 46980 Paterna, Spain
- Darwin Bioprospecting Excellence SL., Parc Científic, Universitat de València, 46980 Paterna, Spain
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5
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Kato H, Okino N, Kijitori H, Izawa Y, Wada Y, Maki M, Yamamoto T, Yano T. Analysis of biofilm and bacterial communities in the towel environment with daily use. Sci Rep 2023; 13:7611. [PMID: 37165063 PMCID: PMC10172380 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34501-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Towels differ remarkably from other textile products in their fibre structure and usage, and microbial behaviours on towels remain underexplored. Thus, we evaluated biofilm formation on towels during use for 6 months in daily life and analysed its relationship with odour, dullness, and laundry habits. The towels exhibited odour and dullness after 2 months of use and biofilm structures were observed over the 6 months, especially in the ground warp part. Polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, and viable counts on the towels increased over time. The microbiota was significantly different from that on human skin and clothing. Several species of Alphaproteobacteria were correlated with dullness intensity and the quantity of biofilm components. Therefore, bacterial species that specifically adapt to the towel fibre environment could form biofilms. Our results demonstrate bacterial diversity in textile products and suggest careful consideration of the textile fibre material, structure, and usage pattern to control bacterial communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruro Kato
- Safety Science Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2606 Ichikai, Haga, Tochigi, 321-3497, Japan
| | - Nagisa Okino
- Household Products Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 1334 Minato, Wakayama, Wakayama, 640-8580, Japan
| | - Hiroki Kijitori
- Household Products Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 1334 Minato, Wakayama, Wakayama, 640-8580, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Izawa
- Biological Science Research Laboratory, Kao Corporation, 1334 Minato, Wakayama, Wakayama, 640-8580, Japan
| | - Yasunao Wada
- Household Products Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 1334 Minato, Wakayama, Wakayama, 640-8580, Japan
| | - Masataka Maki
- Intellectual Property Organization, Kao Corporation, 1334 Minato, Wakayama, Wakayama, 640-8580, Japan
| | - Takako Yamamoto
- Safety Science Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2606 Ichikai, Haga, Tochigi, 321-3497, Japan
| | - Takehisa Yano
- Safety Science Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2606 Ichikai, Haga, Tochigi, 321-3497, Japan.
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6
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G.O. Al-Ani A, Mohammed Younis K, M.Y. Al-Taee S. Isolation and molecular identification of washing machine bacteria and study of the effect of some detergents on their growth. BIONATURA 2023. [DOI: 10.21931/rb/2023.08.01.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to isolate, molecular identify, and evaluate the antimicrobial activity of the three commercial types of household detergents; Persil (P), Arial (A), and Peros (Pe) in both forms of gel liquid and (Tate ) powder and antibiotics susceptibility test to assessed against isolates from used washing machines in Mosul city/ Iraq. A total of 46 bacterial isolates were isolated. Five isolates were designated as Kh-Am1, Kh-Am4 from the Drum part, Kh-Am3, Kh-Am6 from the Rubber door seal part and Kh-Am5 from Drain dictum; these isolates were selected for molecular identification by 16S rRNA. The 16S rRNA gene of Kh-Am1, Kh-Am3, Kh-Am4, Kh-Am5 and Kh-Am6. The disc agar diffusion method was adopted for each selected isolate using stock and diluted concentrations. After incubation at 37ₒC for 24 hours, inhibition of Aerea was recorded. The results showed that the powder and gel form detergent stock solution has more inhibitory efficacy for the assayed isolates than dilutions. Susceptibility to antibiotics assay revealed that almost all the selected isolates were resistant. Even though infectious strains were not found, opportunistic pathogens were detected. However, because many bacteria have been detected in wash water, washing items at home with it may result in microbial contamination.
Keywords: Washing machine bacteria, Washing machine environment, Detergents effect on bacteria, Antibiotic Susceptibility of washing machine bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amina G.O. Al-Ani
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Mosul University, Mosul, Iraq
| | | | - Sura M.Y. Al-Taee
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Mosul University, Mosul, Iraq
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7
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Cremer J, Kaltschmidt BP, Kiel A, Eberhard J, Schmidt S, Kaltschmidt C, Kaltschmidt B, Hütten A, Anselmetti D. Aging of Industrial Polypropylene Surfaces in Detergent Solution and Its Consequences for Biofilm Formation. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15051247. [PMID: 36904487 PMCID: PMC10006934 DOI: 10.3390/polym15051247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The performance of plastic components in water-bearing parts of industrial and household appliances, often in the presence of harsh environments and elevated temperatures, critically relies on the mechanical and thermal polymer stability. In this light, the precise knowledge of aging properties of polymers formulated with dedicated antiaging additive packages as well as various fillers is crucial for long-time device warranty. We investigated and analysed the time-dependent, polymer-liquid interface aging of different industrial performance polypropylene samples in aqueous detergent solution at high temperatures (95 °C). Special emphasis was put on the disadvantageous process of consecutive biofilm formation that often follows surface transformation and degradation. Atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and infrared spectroscopy were used to monitor and analyse the surface aging process. Additionally, bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation was characterised by colony forming unit assays. One of the key findings is the observation of crystalline, fibre-like growth of ethylene bis stearamide (EBS) on the surface during the aging process. EBS is a widely used process aid and lubricant enabling the proper demoulding of injection moulding plastic parts. The aging-induced surface-covering EBS layers changed the surface morphology and promoted bacterial adhesion as well as biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Cremer
- Department of Experimental Biophysics & Applied Nanoscience, Faculty of Physics, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Bernhard P. Kaltschmidt
- Department of Thin Films and Physics of Nanostructures, Center of Spinelectronic Materials and Devices, Faculty of Physics, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Annika Kiel
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | | | | | - Christian Kaltschmidt
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Barbara Kaltschmidt
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Andreas Hütten
- Department of Thin Films and Physics of Nanostructures, Center of Spinelectronic Materials and Devices, Faculty of Physics, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Dario Anselmetti
- Department of Experimental Biophysics & Applied Nanoscience, Faculty of Physics, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
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8
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Ag/Cu-Chitosan Composite Improves Laundry Hygiene and Reduces Silver Emission in Washing Machines. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15030695. [PMID: 36771996 PMCID: PMC9919517 DOI: 10.3390/polym15030695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Textiles can be contaminated with pathogens during household laundering, potentially leading to human sickness. In this work, chitosan (CTS) was used as a substrate to prepare Ag/Cu-CTS composite, which was applied in laundering and showed a remarkable antibacterial effect on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The mechanical strength of Ag/Cu-CTS composite beads was higher than 400 MPa. The Ag/Cu-CTS composite were further characterized by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy. This composite had a strong inhibitory effect on several laundry pathogens, such as Acinetobacter sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans. Using a standard laundering program and 15 g of Ag/Cu-CTS composite beads, the antibacterial rates reached 99.9%, and no silver emission was detected, thereby satisfying the Chinese requirement for washing machines. After 160 runs of laundering tests, this composite still has an excellent antibacterial effect. For the first time, chitosan is successfully applied as an antibacterial material on household electric appliances.
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9
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Kiel A, Creutz I, Rückert C, Kaltschmidt BP, Hütten A, Niehaus K, Busche T, Kaltschmidt B, Kaltschmidt C. Genome-Based Analysis of Virulence Factors and Biofilm Formation in Novel P. aeruginosa Strains Isolated from Household Appliances. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10122508. [PMID: 36557761 PMCID: PMC9781345 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10122508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In household washing machines, opportunistic pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa are present, which represent the household as a possible reservoir for clinical pathogens. Here, four novel P. aeruginosa strains, isolated from different sites of household appliances, were investigated regarding their biofilm formation. Only two isolates showed strong surface-adhered biofilm formation. In consequence of these phenotypic differences, we performed whole genome sequencing using Oxford Nanopore Technology together with Illumina MiSeq. Whole genome data were screened for the prevalence of 285 virulence- and biofilm-associated genes as well as for prophages. Linking biofilm phenotypes and parallelly appearing gene compositions, we assume a relevancy of the las quorum sensing system and the phage-encoded bacteriophage control infection gene bci, which was found on integrated phi297 DNA in all biofilm-forming isolates. Additionally, only the isolates revealing strong biofilm formation harbored the ϕCTX-like prophage Dobby, implicating a role of this prophage on biofilm formation. Investigations on clinically relevant pathogens within household appliances emphasize their adaptability to harsh environments, with high concentrations of detergents, providing greater insights into pathogenicity and underlying mechanisms. This in turn opens the possibility to map and characterize potentially relevant strains even before they appear as pathogens in society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Kiel
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Ines Creutz
- Proteome and Metabolome Research, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Christian Rückert
- Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Bernhard Peter Kaltschmidt
- Department of Thin Films and Physics of Nanostructures, Center of Spinelectronic Materials and Devices, Faculty of Physics, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Andreas Hütten
- Department of Thin Films and Physics of Nanostructures, Center of Spinelectronic Materials and Devices, Faculty of Physics, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Karsten Niehaus
- Proteome and Metabolome Research, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Tobias Busche
- Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Barbara Kaltschmidt
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Christian Kaltschmidt
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
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10
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Potential for Microbial Cross Contamination of Laundry from Public Washing Machines. MICROBIOLOGY RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/microbiolres13040072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although clothes washing machines remove dirt, microorganisms are not reliably removed by modern cold-water machine-washing practices. Microbial bioburden on clothing originates from the wearer’s skin, the environment (indoor and outdoor), and the washing machine itself. While most clothing microbes are commensals, microbes causing odors and opportunistic pathogens may also be present. Understanding the extent of microbial transfer from washing machines to clothes may inform strategies for odor control and for mitigating the transmission of microbes through the laundering process. This study was designed to quantify and identify bacteria/fungi transferred from laundromat machines to sentinel cotton washcloths under standard cold-water conditions. Bacterial 16S rRNA and fungal ITS sequencing enabled identification of microorganisms in the washcloths following laundering. Total plate-based enumeration of viable microorganisms also was performed, using growth media appropriate for bacteria and fungi. Opportunistic human bacterial pathogens, including Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp., were recovered. The fungal bioburden was ~two-fold lower than the bacterial bioburden. Most sequences recovered were assigned to non-pathogenic fungi, such as those from genera Malassezia and Ascomycota. These results suggest that public washing machines represent a source of non-pathogenic and pathogenic microbial contamination of laundered garments.
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11
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Magnetron Sputtering of Transition Metals as an Alternative Production Means for Antibacterial Surfaces. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10091843. [PMID: 36144445 PMCID: PMC9504686 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10091843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the light of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and growing numbers of bacteria with resistance to antibiotics, the development of antimicrobial coatings is rising worldwide. Inorganic coatings are attractive because of low environmental leakage and wear resistance. Examples for coatings are hot metal dipping or physical vapor deposition of nanometer coatings. Here, magnetron sputtering of various transition metals, such as gold, ruthenium and tantalum, was investigated. Metal films were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). We investigated the growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from household appliances on different sputter-coated metal surfaces. The fine-grained nanometric structure of these metal coatings was between 14 nm (tantalum) and 26 nm (gold) and the roughness was in a range of 164 pm (ruthenium) to 246 pm (gold). Antibacterial efficacy of metal surfaces followed the order: gold > tantalum > ruthenium. Interestingly, gold had the strongest inhibitory effect on bacterial growth, as analyzed by LIVE/DEAD and CFU assay. High-magnification SEM images showed dead bacteria characterized by shrinkage induced by metal coatings. We conclude that sputtering might be a new application for the development of antimicrobial surfaces on household appliances and or surgical instruments.
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12
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Merettig N, Bockmühl DP. Virucidal Efficacy of Laundering. Pathogens 2022; 11:993. [PMID: 36145425 PMCID: PMC9503802 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11090993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses contribute significantly to the burden of infectious diseases worldwide. Although there are multiple infection routes associated with viruses, it is important to break the chain of infection and thus consider all possible transmission routes. Consequently, laundering can be a means to eliminate viruses from textiles, in clinical settings well as for domestic laundry procedures. Several factors influence the survival and inactivation of microorganisms, including viruses on hard surfaces and textiles. Therefore, textiles should be regarded as potential fomites. While in clinical and industrial settings laundry hygiene is ensured by standardized processes, temperatures of at least 60 °C and the use of oxidizing agents, domestic laundry is not well defined. Thus, the parameters affecting viral mitigation must be understood and prudently applied, especially in domestic laundering. Laundering can serve as a means to break the chain of infection for viral diseases by means of temperature, time, chemistry and mechanical action.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dirk P. Bockmühl
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, 47533 Kleve, Germany
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13
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Zinn MK, Flemming HC, Bockmühl D. A Comprehensive View of Microbial Communities in the Laundering Cycle Suggests a Preventive Effect of Soil Bacteria on Malodour Formation. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10071465. [PMID: 35889184 PMCID: PMC9318688 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10071465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms are an important factor in the wash-and-use cycle of textiles since they can cause unwanted aesthetic effects, such as malodour formation, and even pose health risks. In this regard, a comprehensive view of the microbial communities in washing machines and consideration of the microbial contamination of used textiles is needed to understand the formation of malodour and evaluate the infection risk related to laundering. So far, neither the compositions of washing machine biofilms leading to the formation of or protection against malodour have been investigated intensively, nor have microbial communities on used towels been analysed after normal use. Our results link the qualitative and quantitative analysis of microbial communities in washing machines and on used towels with the occurrence of malodour and thus not only allow for a better risk evaluation but also suggest bacterial colonizers of washing machines that might prevent malodour formation. It was shown that soil bacteria such as Rhizobium, Agrobacterium, Bosea, and Microbacterium in particular are found in non-odourous machines, and that Rhizobium species are able to prevent malodour formation in an in vitro model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc-Kevin Zinn
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, 47533 Kleve, Germany;
- Biofilm Centre, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45131 Essen, Germany;
| | - Hans-Curt Flemming
- Biofilm Centre, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45131 Essen, Germany;
| | - Dirk Bockmühl
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, 47533 Kleve, Germany;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-2821-806-73-208
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14
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Phaodee P, Adamy ST, Zehr RT, Harwell JH, Grady BP. Improved
cold‐water
detergency of malodourous soil correlating with
hydrophilic–lipophilic
deviation concept. J SURFACTANTS DETERG 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jsde.12561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Parichat Phaodee
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Materials Engineering University of Oklahoma Norman Oklahoma USA
- Institute for Applied Surfactant Research University of Oklahoma Norman Oklahoma USA
| | - Steven T. Adamy
- Church and Dwight Co., Inc. Corporate Technical Center Princeton New Jersey USA
| | - Robert T. Zehr
- Church and Dwight Co., Inc. Corporate Technical Center Princeton New Jersey USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Harwell
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Materials Engineering University of Oklahoma Norman Oklahoma USA
- Institute for Applied Surfactant Research University of Oklahoma Norman Oklahoma USA
| | - Brian P. Grady
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Materials Engineering University of Oklahoma Norman Oklahoma USA
- Institute for Applied Surfactant Research University of Oklahoma Norman Oklahoma USA
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15
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Yau HCL, Malekpour AK, Momin NG, Morales-García AL, Willats WGT, Lant NJ, Jones CY. Removal of eDNA from fabrics using a novel laundry DNase revealed using high-resolution imaging. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21542. [PMID: 34728780 PMCID: PMC8563969 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98939-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Washed textiles can remain malodorous and dingy due to the recalcitrance of soils. Recent work has found that 'invisible' soils such as microbial extracellular DNA (eDNA) play a key role in the adhesion of extracellular polymeric substances that form matrixes contributing to these undesirable characteristics. Here we report the application of an immunostaining method to illustrate the cleaning mechanism of a nuclease (DNase I) acting upon eDNA. Extending previous work that established a key role for eDNA in anchoring these soil matrixes, this work provides new insights into the presence and effective removal of eDNA deposited on fabrics using high-resolution in-situ imaging. Using a monoclonal antibody specific to Z-DNA, we showed that when fabrics are washed with DNase I, the incidence of microbial eDNA is reduced. As well as a quantitative reduction in microbial eDNA, the deep cleaning benefits of this enzyme are shown using confocal microscopy and imaging analysis of T-shirt fibers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time the use of a molecular probe has been leveraged for fabric and homecare-related R&D to visualize eDNA and evaluate its removal from textiles by a new-to-laundry DNase enzyme. The approaches described in the current work also have scope for re-application to identify further cleaning technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamish C L Yau
- Procter and Gamble, Newcastle Innovation Centre, Whitley Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE12 9BZ, UK
| | - Adam K Malekpour
- Procter and Gamble, Newcastle Innovation Centre, Whitley Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE12 9BZ, UK
| | - Nazarmohammad G Momin
- Procter and Gamble, Newcastle Innovation Centre, Whitley Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE12 9BZ, UK
| | - Ana L Morales-García
- Procter and Gamble, Newcastle Innovation Centre, Whitley Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE12 9BZ, UK
| | - William G T Willats
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Devonshire Building, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
| | - Neil J Lant
- Procter and Gamble, Newcastle Innovation Centre, Whitley Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE12 9BZ, UK.
| | - Catherine Y Jones
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Devonshire Building, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
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16
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Nagarkar M, Keely SP, Brinkman NE, Garland JL. Human- and infrastructure-associated bacteria in greywater. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 131:2178-2192. [PMID: 33905584 PMCID: PMC8682149 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Greywater, the wastewater from sinks, showers and laundry, is an understudied environment for bacterial communities. Most greywater studies focus on quantifying pathogens, often via proxies used in other wastewater, like faecal indicator bacteria; there is a need to identify more greywater-appropriate surrogates, like Staphylococcus sp. Sequencing-based studies have revealed distinct communities in different types of greywater as well as in different parts of greywater infrastructure, including biofilms on pipes, holding tanks and filtration systems. The use of metagenomic sequencing provides high resolution on both the taxa and genes present, which may be of interest in cases like identifying pathogens and surrogates relevant to different matrices, monitoring antibiotic resistance genes and understanding metabolic processes occurring in the system. Here, we review what is known about bacterial communities in different types of greywater and its infrastructure. We suggest that wider adoption of environmental sequencing in greywater research is important because it can describe the entire bacterial community along with its metabolic capabilities, including pathways for removal of nutrients and organic materials. We briefly describe a metagenomic dataset comparing different types of greywater samples in a college dormitory building to highlight the type of questions these methods can address. Metagenomic sequencing can help further the understanding of greywater treatment for reuse because it allows for identification of new pathogens or genes of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nagarkar
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - S P Keely
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - N E Brinkman
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - J L Garland
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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17
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Metatranscriptomic Analysis of Bacterial Communities on Laundered Textiles: A Pilot Case Study. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9081591. [PMID: 34442670 PMCID: PMC8400938 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9081591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbially contaminated washing machines and mild laundering conditions facilitate the survival and growth of microorganisms on laundry, promoting undesired side effects such as malodor formation. Clearly, a deeper understanding of the functionality and hygienic relevance of the laundry microbiota necessitates the analysis of the microbial gene expression on textiles after washing, which—to the best of our knowledge—has not been performed before. In this pilot case study, we used single-end RNA sequencing to generate de novo transcriptomes of the bacterial communities remaining on polyester and cotton fabrics washed in a domestic washing machine in mild conditions and subsequently incubated under moist conditions for 72 h. Two common de novo transcriptome assemblers were used. The final assemblies included 22,321 Trinity isoforms and 12,600 Spades isoforms. A large part of these isoforms could be assigned to the SwissProt database, and was further categorized into “molecular function”, “biological process” and “cellular component” using Gene Ontology (GO) terms. In addition, differential gene expression was used to show the difference in the pairwise comparison of the two tissue types. When comparing the assemblies generated with the two assemblers, the annotation results were relatively similar. However, there were clear differences between the de novo assemblies regarding differential gene expression.
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18
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Broadhead R, Craeye L, Callewaert C. The Future of Functional Clothing for an Improved Skin and Textile Microbiome Relationship. Microorganisms 2021; 9:1192. [PMID: 34073029 PMCID: PMC8226598 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The skin microbiome has become a hot field of research in the last few years. The emergence of next-generation sequencing has given unprecedented insights into the impact and involvement of microbiota in skin conditions. More and more cosmetics contain probiotics or bacteria as an active ingredient, with or without scientific data. This research is also acknowledged by the textile industry. There has been a more holistic approach on how the skin and textile microbiome interacts and how they influence the pH, moisture content and odour generation. To date, most of the ingredients have a broad-spectrum antibacterial action. This manuscript covers the current research and industry developments in the field of skin and textiles. It explores the nature of antimicrobial finishing in textiles which can disrupt the skin microbiome, and the benefits of more natural and microbiome friendly therapies to combat skin conditions, malodour and skin infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chris Callewaert
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (R.B.); (L.C.)
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19
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Asghari E, Kiel A, Kaltschmidt BP, Wortmann M, Schmidt N, Hüsgen B, Hütten A, Knabbe C, Kaltschmidt C, Kaltschmidt B. Identification of Microorganisms from Several Surfaces by MALDI-TOF MS: P. aeruginosa Is Leading in Biofilm Formation. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9050992. [PMID: 34064414 PMCID: PMC8147854 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9050992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
New ecological trends and changes in consumer behavior are known to favor biofilm formation in household appliances, increasing the need for new antimicrobial materials and surfaces. Their development requires laboratory-cultivated biofilms, or biofilm model systems (BMS), which allow for accelerated growth and offer better understanding of the underlying formation mechanisms. Here, we identified bacterial strains in wildtype biofilms from a variety of materials from domestic appliances using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectroscopy (MALDI-TOF-MS). Staphylococci and pseudomonads were identified by MALDI-TOF-MS as the main genera in the habitats and were analyzed for biofilm formation using various in vitro methods. Standard quantitative biofilm assays were combined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to characterize biofilm formation. While Pseudomonas putida, a published lead germ, was not identified in any of the collected samples, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was found to be the most dominant biofilm producer. Water-born Pseudomonads were dominantly found in compartments with water contact only, such as in detergent compartment and detergent enemata. Furthermore, materials in contact with the washing load are predominantly colonized with bacteria from the human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Asghari
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (E.A.); (A.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Annika Kiel
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (E.A.); (A.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Bernhard Peter Kaltschmidt
- Department of Thin Films & Physics of Nanostructures, Center of Spinelectronic Materials and Devices, Faculty of Physics, University of Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (B.P.K.); (A.H.)
| | - Martin Wortmann
- Department of Plastics Technology, University of Applied Sciences, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany; (M.W.); (B.H.)
| | - Nadine Schmidt
- Institute for Laboratory- and Transfusion Medicine, Heart- and Diabetes Centre NRW, Ruhr-University Bochum, 32545 Bad Oeynhausen, Germany; (N.S.); (C.K.)
| | - Bruno Hüsgen
- Department of Plastics Technology, University of Applied Sciences, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany; (M.W.); (B.H.)
| | - Andreas Hütten
- Department of Thin Films & Physics of Nanostructures, Center of Spinelectronic Materials and Devices, Faculty of Physics, University of Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (B.P.K.); (A.H.)
| | - Cornelius Knabbe
- Institute for Laboratory- and Transfusion Medicine, Heart- and Diabetes Centre NRW, Ruhr-University Bochum, 32545 Bad Oeynhausen, Germany; (N.S.); (C.K.)
| | - Christian Kaltschmidt
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (E.A.); (A.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Barbara Kaltschmidt
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (E.A.); (A.K.); (C.K.)
- Correspondence:
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20
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Zinn MK, Singer M, Bockmühl D. Smells Like Teen Spirit-A Model to Generate Laundry-Associated Malodour In Vitro. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9050974. [PMID: 33946384 PMCID: PMC8147169 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9050974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although malodour formation on textiles and in washing machines has been reported to be a very relevant problem in domestic laundry, the processes leading to bad odours have not been studied intensively. In particular, the smell often described as "wet-and-dirty-dustcloth-like malodour" had not been reproduced previously. We developed a lab model based on a bacterial mixture of Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus hominis, and Corynebacterium jeikeium, which can produce this odour type and which might allow the detailed investigation of this problem and the development of counteractions. The model uses bacterial strains that have been isolated from malodourous textiles. We could also show that the three volatile compounds dimethyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, and indole contribute considerably to the "wet-fabric-like" malodour. These substances were not only found to be formed in the malodour model but have already been identified in the literature as relevant malodourous substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc-Kevin Zinn
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, 47533 Kleve, Germany;
| | | | - Dirk Bockmühl
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, 47533 Kleve, Germany;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-2821-806-73-208; Fax: +49-2821-806-73-44208
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21
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Cultivation-Based Quantification and Identification of Bacteria at Two Hygienic Key Sides of Domestic Washing Machines. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9050905. [PMID: 33922491 PMCID: PMC8146927 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9050905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Detergent drawer and door seal represent important sites for microbial life in domestic washing machines. Interestingly, quantitative data on the microbial contamination of these sites is scarce. Here, 10 domestic washing machines were swab-sampled for subsequent bacterial cultivation at four different sampling sites: detergent drawer and detergent drawer chamber, as well as the top and bottom part of the rubber door seal. The average bacterial load over all washing machines and sites was 2.1 ± 1.0 × 104 CFU cm−2 (average number of colony forming units ± standard error of the mean (SEM)). The top part of the door seal showed the lowest contamination (11.1 ± 9.2 × 101 CFU cm−2), probably due to less humidity. Out of 212 isolates, 178 (84%) were identified on the genus level, and 118 (56%) on the species level using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) Biotyping, resulting in 29 genera and 40 identified species across all machines. The predominant bacterial genera were Staphylococcus and Micrococcus, which were found at all sites. 22 out of 40 species were classified as opportunistic pathogens, emphasizing the need for regular cleaning of the investigated sites.
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22
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Dishwashers as an Extreme Environment of Potentially Pathogenic Yeast Species. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10040446. [PMID: 33917934 PMCID: PMC8068352 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10040446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The study aimed to compare the yeast species diversity in the specific environment of dishwashers, taking into account the potential risk for users. Yeasts were isolated from ten dishwashers and from tap water supplied to the appliances. Samples were collected for mycological analyses at the beginning of each month, from February to May 2016. Four dishwasher sites (rubber seals, detergent dispensers, sprinklers, and water drains) were analyzed. The microfungi were identified by the standard procedures applied in mycological diagnostics. To confirm species identification, molecular analysis was performed based on the sequences of the D1/D2 region. The presence of microfungi was detected in 70% of the investigated appliances. Rubber seals, detergent dispensers, and water drains were the most frequently colonized elements. Thirty-five yeast strains were isolated in this study, of which twenty-seven were obtained from dishwashers and eight from tap water. The strains belonged to six genera and six species (Candida parapsilosis, Clavispora lusitaniae, Dipodascus capitatus, Exophiala dermatitidis, Meyerozyma guilliermondii, and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa). Most of the strains came from rubber seals. In this way, it was demonstrated that the dishwashers’ condition is sufficient as an ecological niche for microfungi.
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23
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The Household Resistome: Frequency of β-Lactamases, Class 1 Integrons, and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in the Domestic Environment and Their Reduction during Automated Dishwashing and Laundering. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:AEM.02062-20. [PMID: 32978137 PMCID: PMC7657631 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02062-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Households provide a habitat for bacteria originating from humans, animals, foods, contaminated clothes, or other sources. Thus, bacteria carrying antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) may be introduced via household members, animals, or the water supply from external habitats into private households and vice versa. Since data on antibiotic resistance (ABR) in the domestic environment are limited, this study aimed to determine the abundance of β-lactamase, mobile colistin resistance, and class 1 integron genes and the correlation of their presence and to characterize phenotypically resistant strains in 54 private households in Germany. Additionally, the persistence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria during automated dishwashing compared to that during laundering was assessed. Shower drains, washing machines, and dishwashers were sampled and analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR. Resistant strains were isolated, followed by identification and antibiotic susceptibility testing using a Vitek 2 system. The results showed a significantly higher relative ARG abundance of 0.2367 ARG copies/16S rRNA gene copies in shower drains than in dishwashers (0.1329 ARG copies/16S rRNA gene copies) and washing machines (0.0006 ARG copies/16S rRNA gene copies). bla CMY-2, bla ACT/MIR, and bla OXA-48 were the most prevalent ARG, and intI1 occurred in 96.3% of the households, while no mcr genes were detected. Several β-lactamase genes co-occurred, and the resistance of bacterial isolates correlated positively with genotypic resistance, with carbapenemase genes dominating across isolates. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria were significantly reduced during automated dishwashing as well as laundering tests and did not differ from susceptible strains. Overall, the domestic environment may represent a potential reservoir of β-lactamase genes and β-lactam-resistant bacteria, with shower drains being the dominant source of ABR.IMPORTANCE The abundance of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and ARGs is steadily increasing and has been comprehensively analyzed in natural environments, animals, foods, and wastewater treatment plants. In this respect, β-lactams and colistin are of particular interest due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Despite the connection of private households to these environments, only a few studies have focused on the domestic environment so far. Therefore, the present study further investigated the occurrence of ARGs and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in shower drains, washing machines, and dishwashers. The analysis of the domestic environment as a potential reservoir of resistant bacteria is crucial to determine whether households contribute to the spread of ABR or may be a habitat where resistant bacteria from the natural environment, humans, food, or water are selected due to the use of detergents, antimicrobial products, and antibiotics. Furthermore, ABR could limit the options for the treatment of infections arising in the domestic environment.
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Biological and Chemical Processes that Lead to Textile Malodour Development. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8111709. [PMID: 33142874 PMCID: PMC7692034 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8111709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of malodour on clothing is a well-known problem with social, economic and ecological consequences. Many people still think malodour is the result of a lack of hygiene, which causes social stigma and embarrassment. Clothing is washed more frequently due to odour formation or even discarded when permastink develops. The malodour formation process is impacted by many variables and processes throughout the textile lifecycle. The contact with the skin with consequent transfer of microorganisms, volatiles and odour precursors leads to the formation of a distinctive textile microbiome and volatilome. The washing and drying processes further shape the textile microbiome and impact malodour formation. These processes are impacted by interindividual differences and fabric type as well. This review describes the current knowledge on the volatilome and microbiome of the skin, textile and washing machine, the multiple factors that determine malodour formation on textiles and points out what information is still missing.
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25
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Maurer L, Peris D, Kerl J, Guenther F, Koehler D, Dellweg D. Community Masks During the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic: Filtration Efficacy and Air Resistance. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 2020; 34:11-19. [PMID: 32975460 DOI: 10.1089/jamp.2020.1635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Many countries have introduced a compulsory use of community masks for certain public areas during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Different manufacturers offer reusable community masks in large quantities. The efficacy of these masks, however, is unknown. Method: We tested available community masks of major manufactures and determined the filtration efficacy using radioactive aerosol particles as well as air resistance with a vacuum measurement. Results: Filtration efficacy of the tested reusable community masks ranged from 34.9% ± 1.25% to 88.7% ± 1.18%. Air resistance ranged from 4.3 ± 0.06 to 122.4 ± 0.12 Pa/cm2. There was a good correlation between filtration efficacy and air resistance (Pearson correlation 0.938, p < 0.0001). Conclusions: Filtration efficacy and air resistance differ significantly between the different community masks, but the two measurements correlate well with each other within the entire test series. For optimal protection, one should select a rather airtight mask. When selecting a mask, the highest level of tolerable air resistance can be used as a selection criterion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Maurer
- Philipps Universität Marburg, Marburg, Deutschland
| | - Davide Peris
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Kloster Grafschaft, Schmallenberg, Deutschland
| | - Jens Kerl
- Philipps Universität Marburg, Marburg, Deutschland.,Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Kloster Grafschaft, Schmallenberg, Deutschland
| | - Frank Guenther
- Philipps Universität Marburg, Institution for Microbiology and Hygiene, Marburg, Deutschland
| | - Dieter Koehler
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Kloster Grafschaft, Schmallenberg, Deutschland
| | - Dominic Dellweg
- Philipps Universität Marburg, Marburg, Deutschland.,Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Kloster Grafschaft, Schmallenberg, Deutschland
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26
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Owen L, Laird K. The role of textiles as fomites in the healthcare environment: a review of the infection control risk. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9790. [PMID: 32904371 PMCID: PMC7453921 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infectious diseases are a significant threat in both healthcare and community settings. Healthcare associated infections (HCAIs) in particular are a leading cause of complications during hospitalisation. Contamination of the healthcare environment is recognised as a source of infectious disease yet the significance of porous surfaces including healthcare textiles as fomites is not well understood. It is currently assumed there is little infection risk from textiles due to a lack of direct epidemiological evidence. Decontamination of healthcare textiles is achieved with heat and/or detergents by commercial or in-house laundering with the exception of healthcare worker uniforms which are laundered domestically in some countries. The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the need for rigorous infection control including effective decontamination of potential fomites in the healthcare environment. This article aims to review the evidence for the role of textiles in the transmission of infection, outline current procedures for laundering healthcare textiles and review studies evaluating the decontamination efficacy of domestic and industrial laundering. METHODOLOGY Pubmed, Google Scholar and Web of Science were searched for publications pertaining to the survival and transmission of microorganisms on textiles with a particular focus on the healthcare environment. RESULTS A number of studies indicate that microorganisms survive on textiles for extended periods of time and can transfer on to skin and other surfaces suggesting it is biologically plausible that HCAIs and other infectious diseases can be transmitted directly through contact with contaminated textiles. Accordingly, there are a number of case studies that link small outbreaks with inadequate laundering or infection control processes surrounding healthcare laundry. Studies have also demonstrated the survival of potential pathogens during laundering of healthcare textiles, which may increase the risk of infection supporting the data published on specific outbreak case studies. CONCLUSIONS There are no large-scale epidemiological studies demonstrating a direct link between HCAIs and contaminated textiles yet evidence of outbreaks from published case studies should not be disregarded. Adequate microbial decontamination of linen and infection control procedures during laundering are required to minimise the risk of infection from healthcare textiles. Domestic laundering of healthcare worker uniforms is a particular concern due to the lack of control and monitoring of decontamination, offering a route for potential pathogens to enter the clinical environment. Industrial laundering of healthcare worker uniforms provides greater assurances of adequate decontamination compared to domestic laundering, due to the ability to monitor laundering parameters; this is of particular importance during the COVID-19 pandemic to minimise any risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Owen
- Infectious Disease Research Group, The Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Katie Laird
- Infectious Disease Research Group, The Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom
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Novak Babič M, Gostinčar C, Gunde-Cimerman N. Microorganisms populating the water-related indoor biome. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:6443-6462. [PMID: 32533304 PMCID: PMC7347518 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10719-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Modernisation of our households created novel opportunities for microbial growth and thus changed the array of microorganisms we come in contact with. While many studies have investigated microorganisms in the air and dust, tap water, another major input of microbial propagules, has received far less attention. The quality of drinking water in developed world is strictly regulated to prevent immediate danger to human health. However, fungi, algae, protists and bacteria of less immediate concern are usually not screened for. These organisms can thus use water as a vector of transmission into the households, especially if they are resistant to various water treatment procedures. Good tolerance of unfavourable abiotic conditions is also important for survival once microbes enter the household. Limitation of water availability, high or low temperatures, application of antimicrobial chemicals and other measures are taken to prevent indoor microbial overgrowth. These conditions, together with a large number of novel chemicals in our homes, shape the diversity and abundance of indoor microbiota through constant selection of the most resilient species, resulting in a substantial overlap in diversity of indoor and natural extreme environments. At least in fungi, extremotolerance has been linked to human pathogenicity, explaining why many species found in novel indoor habitats (such as dishwasher) are notable opportunistic pathogens. As a result, microorganisms that often enter our households with water and are then enriched in novel indoor habitats might have a hitherto underestimated impact on the well-being of the increasingly indoor-bound human population. KEY POINTS: Domestic environment harbours a large diversity of microorganisms. Microbiota of water-related indoor habitats mainly originates from tap water. Bathrooms, kitchens and household appliances select for polyextremotolerant species. Many household-related microorganisms are human opportunistic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Novak Babič
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Cene Gostinčar
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Lars Bolund Institute of Regenerative Medicine, BGI-Qingdao, Qingdao, 266555, China
| | - Nina Gunde-Cimerman
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Dellweg D, Pfeifer M. Stellungnahme zum Leserbrief „Die maskierte Gesellschaft“ von Prof. Santiago Ewig, Prof. Sören Gatermann und Prof. Sebastian Lemmen. Pneumologie 2020; 74:409-411. [PMID: 32583379 PMCID: PMC7416200 DOI: 10.1055/a-1199-4557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Proctor CR, Rhoads WJ, Keane T, Salehi M, Hamilton K, Pieper KJ, Cwiertny DM, Prévost M, Whelton AJ. Considerations for large building water quality after extended stagnation. AWWA WATER SCIENCE 2020; 2:e1186. [PMID: 32838226 DOI: 10.31219/osf.io/qvj3b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The unprecedented number of building closures related to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is concerning because water stagnation will occur in many buildings that do not have water management plans in place. Stagnant water can have chemical and microbiological contaminants that pose potential health risks to occupants. Health officials, building owners, utilities, and other entities are rapidly developing guidance to address this issue, but the scope, applicability, and details included in the guidance vary widely. To provide a primer of large building water system preventative and remedial strategies, peer-reviewed, government, industry, and nonprofit literature relevant to water stagnation and decontamination practices for plumbing was synthesized. Preventative practices to help avoid the need for recommissioning (e.g., routine flushing) and specific actions, challenges, and limitations associated with recommissioning were identified and characterized. Considerations for worker and occupant safety were also indicated. The intended audience of this work includes organizations developing guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin R Proctor
- Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Materials Engineering Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana
| | - William J Rhoads
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Virginia Tech Blacksburg Virginia
| | - Tim Keane
- Legionella Risk Management, Inc. Chalfont Pennsylvania
| | - Maryam Salehi
- Department of Civil Engineering University of Memphis Memphis Tennessee
| | - Kerry Hamilton
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment Arizona State University Tempe Arizona
| | - Kelsey J Pieper
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Northeastern University Boston Massachusetts
| | - David M Cwiertny
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Seamans Center for the Engineering Arts and Sciences University of Iowa Iowa City Iowa
- Center for Health Effects of Environmental Contamination University of Iowa Iowa City Iowa
- Public Policy Center University of Iowa Iowa City Iowa
| | - Michele Prévost
- Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Polytechnique Montreal Montréal Québec Canada
| | - Andrew J Whelton
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana
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Proctor CR, Rhoads WJ, Keane T, Salehi M, Hamilton K, Pieper KJ, Cwiertny DM, Prévost M, Whelton AJ. Considerations for Large Building Water Quality after Extended Stagnation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 2:e1186. [PMID: 32838226 PMCID: PMC7323006 DOI: 10.1002/aws2.1186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The unprecedented number of building closures related to the coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) pandemic is concerning because water stagnation will occur in many buildings that do not have water management plans in place. Stagnant water can have chemical and microbiological contaminants that pose potential health risks to occupants. Health officials, building owners, utilities, and other entities are rapidly developing guidance to address this issue, but the scope, applicability, and details included in the guidance vary widely. To provide a primer of large building water system preventative and remedial strategies, peer‐reviewed, government, industry, and nonprofit literature relevant to water stagnation and decontamination practices for plumbing was synthesized. Preventative practices to help avoid the need for recommissioning (e.g., routine flushing) and specific actions, challenges, and limitations associated with recommissioning were identified and characterized. Considerations for worker and occupant safety were also indicated. The intended audience of this work includes organizations developing guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin R Proctor
- Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Materials Engineering Purdue University West Lafayette IN
| | - William J Rhoads
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA
| | - Tim Keane
- Consulting Engineer, Legionella Risk Management, Inc PA
| | - Maryam Salehi
- Department of Civil Engineering University of Memphis Memphis TN
| | - Kerry Hamilton
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment Arizona State University Tempe AZ
| | - Kelsey J Pieper
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Northeastern University Boston MA
| | - David M Cwiertny
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, 4105 Seamans Center for the Engineering Arts and Sciences University of Iowa Iowa City IA.,Center for Health Effects of Environmental Contamination, 251 North Capitol Street, Chemistry Building - Room W195 University of Iowa Iowa City IA.,Public Policy Center, 310 South Grand Ave, 209 South Quadrangle University of Iowa Iowa City IA
| | - Michele Prévost
- Professor and Principal Chairholder, NSERC Industrial Chair on Drinking Water, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Polytechnique Montreal CP Québec Canada
| | - Andrew J Whelton
- Purdue University, Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering West Lafayette IN
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Sterndorff EB, Russel J, Jakobsen J, Mortensen MS, Gori K, Herschend J, Burmølle M. The T-shirt microbiome is distinct between individuals and shaped by washing and fabric type. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 185:109449. [PMID: 32278157 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Activity of the microbial population in clothing causes unpleasant odor and textile deterioration. However, little is known about how the textile microbial community is shaped. In this study, we developed a method for extracting DNA from small amounts of detergent-washed clothing, and applied it to both worn and unworn, washed and unwashed cotton and polyester samples of the axillary region of T-shirts from 10 male subjects. The combined application of 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and quantitative PCR allowed us to estimate the absolute abundances of bacteria in the samples. We found that the T-shirt microbiome was highly individual, both in composition, diversity and microbial biomass. Fabric type was influential where Acinetobacter was more abundant in cotton. Intriguingly, unworn cotton T-shirts had a native microbiome dominated by Acinetobacter, whereas unworn polyester had no detectable bacterial microbiome. The native textile microbiome did not seem to have any effect on the microbial composition emerging from wearing the garment. Surprisingly, washing in mild detergent had only minor effects on the composition and biomass of the microbial community, and only few Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASV)s were found to decrease in abundance after washing. Individual variations between test subjects shaped the microbial community more than the type of fabric or wash with detergent. The individuality of T-shirt microbiomes and specificity of the washing procedure suggests that personalized laundry regimes could be applied to increase efficient removal of undesired bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jakob Russel
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jonas Jakobsen
- Novozymes A/S, Household Care Application Research, Bagsværd, Denmark
| | | | - Klaus Gori
- Novozymes A/S, Household Care Application Research, Bagsværd, Denmark
| | - Jakob Herschend
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Novozymes A/S, Household Care Application Research, Bagsværd, Denmark.
| | - Mette Burmølle
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Flemming HC. Biofouling and me: My Stockholm syndrome with biofilms. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 173:115576. [PMID: 32044598 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Biofouling is the undesired deposition and growth of microorganisms on surfaces, forming biofilms. The definition is subjective and operational: not every biofilm causes biofouling - only if a given a subjective "threshold of interference" is exceeded, biofilms cause technical or medical problems. These range from the formation of slime layers on ship hulls or in pipelines, which increase friction resistance, to separation membranes, on which biofilms increase hydraulic resistance, to heat exchangers where they interfere with heat transport to contamination of treated water by eroded biofilm cells which may comprise hygienically relevant microorganisms, and, most dangerous, to biofilms on implants and catheters which can cause persistent infections. The largest fraction of anti-fouling research, usually in short-term experiments, is focused on prevention or limiting primary microbial adhesion. Intuitively, this appears only logical, but turns out mostly hopeless. This is because in technical systems with open access for microorganisms, all surfaces are colonized sooner or later which explains the very limited success of that research. As a result, the use of biocides remains the major tool to fight persistent biofilms. However, this is costly in terms of biocides, it stresses working materials, causes off-time and environmental damage and it usually leaves large parts of biofilms in place, ready for regrowth. In order to really solve biofouling problems, it is necessary to learn how to live with biofilms and mitigate their detrimental effects. This requires rather an integrated strategy than aiming to invent "one-shot" solutions. In this context, it helps to understand the biofilm way of life as a natural phenomenon. Biofilms are the oldest, most successful and most widely distributed form of life on earth, existing even in extreme environments and being highly resilient. Microorganisms in biofilms live in a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) which allows them to develop emerging properties such as enhanced nutrient acquisition, synergistic microconsortia, enhanced tolerance to biocides and antibiotics, intense intercellular communication and cooperation. Transiently immobilized, biofilm organisms turn their matrix into an external digestion system by retaining complexed exoenzymes in the matrix. Biofilms grow even on traces of any biodegradable material, therefore, an effective anti-fouling strategy comprises to keep the system low in nutrients (good housekeeping), employing low-fouling, easy-to-clean surfaces, monitoring of biofilm development, allowing for early intervention, and acknowledging that cleaning can be more important than trying to kill biofilms, because cleaning does not cut the nutrient supply of survivors and dead biomass serves as an additional carbon source for "cannibalizing" survivors, supporting rapid after growth. An integrated concept is presented as the result of a long journey of the author through biofouling problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Curt Flemming
- Water Academy, Schloss-Strasse 40, D-88045, Friedrichshafen, Germany; Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore; Biofilm Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45141, Essen, Germany; IWW Water Centre, Moritzstrasse 26, 45476, Muelheim, Germany.
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Abstract
Surgical attire provides a barrier to microorganisms shed from health care workers' skin and hair to help protect patients and promote a clean environment. The AORN "Guideline for surgical attire" includes recommendations for selecting, wearing, and cleaning surgical attire that are based on the highest-quality evidence available. Recommendations are rated as Regulatory Requirement, Recommendation, Conditional Recommendation, or No Recommendation according to the level of evidence, an assessment of the benefits versus harms of implementing specific interventions, and consideration of resources required to implement the interventions. This article discusses guideline recommendations related to laundering surgical attire, wearing long-sleeved attire, and wearing head coverings. A scenario provides an example in which an interdisciplinary facility team uses a gap analysis and a risk assessment to prioritize process changes for implementing the guideline. Perioperative personnel should review the entire guideline for additional information and for guidance when creating and updating policies and procedures.
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Influence of Sampling Site and other Environmental Factors on the Bacterial Community Composition of Domestic Washing Machines. Microorganisms 2019; 8:microorganisms8010030. [PMID: 31877898 PMCID: PMC7022543 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8010030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern, mainly sustainability-driven trends, such as low-temperature washing or bleach-free liquid detergents, facilitate microbial survival of the laundry processes. Favourable growth conditions like humidity, warmth and sufficient nutrients also contribute to microbial colonization of washing machines. Such colonization might lead to negatively perceived staining, corrosion of washing machine parts and surfaces, as well as machine and laundry malodour. In this study, we characterized the bacterial community of 13 domestic washing machines at four different sampling sites (detergent drawer, door seal, sump and fibres collected from the washing solution) using 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing and statistically analysed associations with environmental and user-dependent factors. Across 50 investigated samples, the bacterial community turned out to be significantly site-dependent with the highest alpha diversity found inside the detergent drawer, followed by sump, textile fibres isolated from the washing solution, and door seal. Surprisingly, out of all other investigated factors only the monthly number of wash cycles at temperatures ≥ 60 °C showed a significant influence on the community structure. A higher number of hot wash cycles per month increased microbial diversity, especially inside the detergent drawer. Potential reasons and the hygienic relevance of this finding need to be assessed in future studies.
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Shin Y, Park J, Park W. Sterilization efficiency of pathogen-contaminated cottons in a laundry machine. J Microbiol 2019; 58:30-38. [PMID: 31768938 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-020-9391-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenic bacteria on abiotic surfaces such as fabrics, bedding, patient wears, and surgical tools are known to increase the risk of bacterial diseases in infants and the elderly. The desiccation tolerance of bacteria affects their viability in cotton. Thus, washing and drying machines are required to use conditions that ensure the sterilization of bacteria in cotton. The objective of this study is to determine the effects of various sterilization conditions of washing and drying machines on the survival of three pathogenic bacteria (Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus) commonly presented in contaminated cotton and two non-pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli) in cotton. High survival rates of A. baumannii and S. aureus in desiccated cotton were observed based on scanning electron microscope and replicate organism direct agar contact assay. The survival rates of A. baumannii and S. aureus exposed in desiccated cotton for 8 h were higher (14.4 and 5.0%, respectively) than those of other bacteria (< 0.5%). All tested bacteria were eradicated at low-temperature (< 40°C) washing with activated oxygen bleach (AOB). However, bacterial viability was shown in low temperature washing without AOB. High-temperature (> 60°C) washing was required to achieve 99.9% of the sterilization rate in washing without AOB. The sterilization rate was 93.2% using a drying machine at 60°C for 4 h. This level of sterilization was insufficient in terms of time and energy efficiency. High sterilization efficiency (> 99.9%) at 75°C for 3 h using a drying machine was confirmed. This study suggests standard conditions of drying machines to remove bacterial contamination in cotton by providing practical data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoonjae Shin
- Laboratory of Molecular Environmental Microbiology, Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungha Park
- Digital Appliances Business, Samsung Electronics, Suwon, 16677, Republic of Korea
| | - Woojun Park
- Laboratory of Molecular Environmental Microbiology, Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea.
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An outbreak of ST307 extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a rehabilitation center: An unusual source and route of transmission. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2019; 41:31-36. [PMID: 31685058 DOI: 10.1017/ice.2019.304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Nosocomial outbreaks due to multidrug-resistant microorganisms in rehabilitation centers have rarely been reported. We report an outbreak of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-K. pneumoniae) on a single ward in a rehabilitation center in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. DESIGN Outbreak description. SETTING A 40-bed ward of a rehabilitation center in the Netherlands. METHODS In October 2016, 2 patients were found to be colonized by genetically indistinguishable ESBL-K. pneumoniae isolates. Therefore, an outbreak management team was installed, by whom a contact tracing plan was made. In addition to general outbreak measures, specific measures were formulated to allow continuation of the rehabilitation process. Also, environmental cultures were taken. Multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis and amplification fragment-length polymorphism were used to determine strain relatedness. Selected isolates were subjected to whole-genome multilocus sequence typing. RESULTS The outbreak lasted 8 weeks. In total, 14 patients were colonized with an ESBL-K. pneumoniae, of whom 11 patients had an isolate belonging to sequence type 307. Overall, 163 environmental cultures were taken. Several sites of a household washing machine were repeatedly found to be contaminated with the outbreak strain. This machine was used to wash lifting slings and patient clothing contaminated with feces. The outbreak was contained after taking the machine temporarily out of service and implementing a reinforced and adapted protocol on the use of this machine. CONCLUSION We conclude that in this outbreak, the route of transmission of the outbreak strain via the household washing machine played a major role.
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The Washing Machine as a Reservoir for Transmission of Extended-Spectrum-Beta-Lactamase (CTX-M-15)-Producing Klebsiella oxytoca ST201 to Newborns. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019; 85:AEM.01435-19. [PMID: 31562168 PMCID: PMC6821978 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01435-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Washing machines should be further investigated as possible sites for horizontal gene transfer (ESBL genes) and cross-contamination with clinically important Gram-negative strains. Particularly in the health care sector, the knowledge of possible (re-)contamination of laundry (patients’ clothes and staff uniforms) with multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria could help to prevent and to control nosocomial infections. This report describes an outbreak with a single strain of a multidrug-resistant bacterium (Klebsiella oxytoca sequence type 201) in a neonatal intensive care unit that was terminated only when the washing machine was removed. In addition, the study implies that changes in washing machine design and processing are required to prevent accumulation of residual water where microbial growth can occur and contaminate clothes. During the period from April 2012 to May 2013, 13 newborns (1 to 4 weeks of age) and 1 child in a pediatric hospital ward in Germany were colonized with Klebsiella oxytoca producing an extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) (CTX-M-15). A microbiological source-tracking analysis with human and environmental samples was carried out to identify the source and transmission pathways of the K. oxytoca clone. In addition, different hygienic intervention methods were evaluated. K. oxytoca isolates were detected in the detergent drawer and on the rubber door seal of a domestic washer-extractor machine that was used in the same ward to wash laundry for the newborns, as well as in two sinks. These strains were typed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing. The environmental findings were compared with those for the human strains and the isolates detected on clothing. The results from both techniques showed that the strains were identical (sequence type 201 and PFGE type 00531, a clone specific to this hospital and not previously isolated in Germany), emphasizing the washing machine as a reservoir and fomite for the transmission of these multidrug-resistant bacteria. After the washing machine was taken out of use, no further colonizations were detected during the subsequent 4-year period. IMPORTANCE Washing machines should be further investigated as possible sites for horizontal gene transfer (ESBL genes) and cross-contamination with clinically important Gram-negative strains. Particularly in the health care sector, the knowledge of possible (re-)contamination of laundry (patients’ clothes and staff uniforms) with multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria could help to prevent and to control nosocomial infections. This report describes an outbreak with a single strain of a multidrug-resistant bacterium (Klebsiella oxytoca sequence type 201) in a neonatal intensive care unit that was terminated only when the washing machine was removed. In addition, the study implies that changes in washing machine design and processing are required to prevent accumulation of residual water where microbial growth can occur and contaminate clothes.
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Bockmühl DP, Schages J, Rehberg L. Laundry and textile hygiene in healthcare and beyond. MICROBIAL CELL (GRAZ, AUSTRIA) 2019; 6:299-306. [PMID: 31294042 PMCID: PMC6600116 DOI: 10.15698/mic2019.07.682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The elimination of microbial contaminations from textile is an important aspect of laundering apart from the removal of stains and dirt from used and worn textiles. Although the framework for institutional laundering is well regulated to ensure hygienic cleanliness via the use of e.g. high temperatures and bleaching agents, there are several open points, especially in domestic laundering. In both cases, energy efficiency of appliances is a main driver for innovation and has resulted in a general decrease in washing temperatures which in turn can impact the antimicrobial efficacy of laundering. Thus, the different factors influencing the input and removal of microbial cells in the laundering process and possible adverse effects of microbial contaminants in the washing machine and on the textiles as well as suitable counteractions are discussed in this article, focusing on the clinical area but also considering the domestic environment, which will gain importance in the future, e.g. by the increase of elderly and ill persons being cared for at home.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk P. Bockmühl
- Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Hygiene and Microbiology, Marie-Curie-Str. 1, 47533 Kleve, Germany
| | - Jan Schages
- Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Hygiene and Microbiology, Marie-Curie-Str. 1, 47533 Kleve, Germany
| | - Laura Rehberg
- Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Hygiene and Microbiology, Marie-Curie-Str. 1, 47533 Kleve, Germany
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Licina D, Morrison GC, Bekö G, Weschler CJ, Nazaroff WW. Clothing-Mediated Exposures to Chemicals and Particles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:5559-5575. [PMID: 31034216 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b00272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A growing body of evidence identifies clothing as an important mediator of human exposure to chemicals and particles, which may have public health significance. This paper reviews and critically assesses the state of knowledge regarding how clothing, during wear, influences exposure to molecular chemicals, abiotic particles, and biotic particles, including microbes and allergens. The underlying processes that govern the acquisition, retention, and transmission of clothing-associated contaminants and the consequences of these for subsequent exposures are explored. Chemicals of concern have been identified in clothing, including byproducts of their manufacture and chemicals that adhere to clothing during use and care. Analogously, clothing acts as a reservoir for biotic and abiotic particles acquired from occupational and environmental sources. Evidence suggests that while clothing can be protective by acting as a physical or chemical barrier, clothing-mediated exposures can be substantial in certain circumstances and may have adverse health consequences. This complex process is influenced by the type and history of the clothing; the nature of the contaminant; and by wear, care, and storage practices. Future research efforts are warranted to better quantify, predict, and control clothing-related exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dusan Licina
- Human-Oriented Built Environment Lab, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Glenn C Morrison
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health , The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , North Carolina 27599 , United States
| | - Gabriel Bekö
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering , Technical University of Denmark , Lyngby 2800 , Denmark
| | - Charles J Weschler
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering , Technical University of Denmark , Lyngby 2800 , Denmark
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute , Rutgers University , Piscataway , New Jersey 08901 , United States
| | - William W Nazaroff
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720-1710 , United States
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40
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Farcas D, Blachere FM, Kashon ML, Sbarra D, Schwegler-Berry D, Stull JO, Noti JD. Survival of Staphylococcus aureus on the outer shell of fire fighter turnout gear after sanitation in a commercial washer/extractor. J Occup Med Toxicol 2019; 14:10. [PMID: 30949228 PMCID: PMC6431055 DOI: 10.1186/s12995-019-0230-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus contamination on surfaces including turnout gear had been found throughout a number of fire stations. As such, the outer shell barrier of turnout gear jackets may be an indirect transmission source and proper disinfection is essential to reduce the risk of exposure to fire fighters. Cleaning practices vary considerably among fire stations, and a method to assess disinfection of gear washed in commercial washer/extractors is needed. Methods Swatches (1 in. × 1.5 in.) of the outer shell fabrics, Gemini™, Advance™, and Pioneer™, of turnout gear were inoculated with S. aureus, and washed with an Environmental Protection Agency-registered sanitizer commonly used to wash turnout gear. To initially assess the sanitizer, inoculated swatches were washed in small tubes according to the American Society for Testing Materials E2274 Protocol for evaluating laundry sanitizers. Inoculated swatches were also pinned to turnout gear jackets and washed in a Milnor commercial washer/extractor. Viable S. aureus that remained attached to fabric swatches after washing were recovered and quantified. Scanning Electron Microscopy was used to characterize the stages of S. aureus biofilm formation on the swatches that can result in resistance to disinfection. Results Disinfection in small tubes for only 10 s reduced the viability of S. aureus on Gemini™, Advance™, and Pioneer™ by 73, 99, and 100%, respectively. In contrast, disinfection of S. aureus-contaminated Gemini™ swatches pinned to turnout gear and washed in the washer/extractor was 99.7% effective. Scanning Electron Microscopy showed that biofilm formation begins as early as 5 h after attachment of S. aureus. Conclusion This sanitizer and, likely, others containing the anti-microbial agent didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, is an effective disinfectant of S. aureus. Inclusion of contaminated outer shell swatches in the wash cycle affords a simple and quantitative method to assess sanitization of gear by commercial gear cleaning facilities. This methodology can be extended to assess for other bacterial contaminants. Sanitizer-resistant strains will continue to pose problems, and biofilm formation may affect the cleanliness of the washed turnout gear. Our methodology for assessing effectiveness of disinfection may help reduce the occupational exposure to fire fighters from bacterial contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Farcas
- 1Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1095 Willowdale Road M/S L-4020, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505-2888 USA.,2Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505 USA
| | - Francoise M Blachere
- 1Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1095 Willowdale Road M/S L-4020, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505-2888 USA
| | - Michael L Kashon
- 3Biostatistics and Epidemiology Branch, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1095 Willowdale Road, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505 USA
| | - Deborah Sbarra
- 4National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1095 Willowdale, Road, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505 USA
| | - Diane Schwegler-Berry
- 5Pathology and Physiology Research Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1095 Willowdale Road, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505 USA
| | - Jeffrey O Stull
- International Personnel Protection, Inc., Box 92493, Austin, TX 78709 USA
| | - John D Noti
- 1Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1095 Willowdale Road M/S L-4020, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505-2888 USA
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41
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Egert M. Honor Thy Lodgers? – Structure and Function of the Human Built Environment Microbiome. TENSIDE SURFACT DET 2018. [DOI: 10.3139/113.110577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThe microbiome of the built environment (BE) and its interactions with the human occupants represent a new and highly interdisciplinary research field. The BE is characterized by a great microbial diversity as well as very fluctuating environmental conditions and sharp gradients of physicochemical parameters, which significantly shape the resident microbiomes. A great significance of the BE microbiome for human health is obvious, but far from being fully understood. However, there is a growing body of evidence that antimicrobial and probiotic strategies will have to be balanced in a well-considered manner to successfully manage the BE microbiome in a way that finally is most beneficial for human health.
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Microbial Diversity and Putative Opportunistic Pathogens in Dishwasher Biofilm Communities. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.02755-17. [PMID: 29330184 PMCID: PMC5812945 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02755-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Extreme habitats are not only limited to natural environments, but also exist in manmade systems, for instance, household appliances such as dishwashers. Limiting factors, such as high temperatures, high and low pHs, high NaCl concentrations, presence of detergents, and shear force from water during washing cycles, define microbial survival in this extreme system. Fungal and bacterial diversity in biofilms isolated from rubber seals of 24 different household dishwashers was investigated using next-generation sequencing. Bacterial genera such as Pseudomonas, Escherichia, and Acinetobacter, known to include opportunistic pathogens, were represented in most samples. The most frequently encountered fungal genera in these samples belonged to Candida, Cryptococcus, and Rhodotorula, also known to include opportunistic pathogenic representatives. This study showed how specific conditions of the dishwashers impact the abundance of microbial groups and investigated the interkingdom and intrakingdom interactions that shape these biofilms. The age, usage frequency, and hardness of incoming tap water of dishwashers had significant impact on bacterial and fungal community compositions. Representatives of Candida spp. were found at the highest prevalence (100%) in all dishwashers and are assumed to be one of the first colonizers in recently purchased dishwashers. Pairwise correlations in tested microbiomes showed that certain bacterial groups cooccur, as did the fungal groups. In mixed bacterial-fungal biofilms, early adhesion, contact, and interactions were vital in the process of biofilm formation, where mixed complexes of bacteria and fungi could provide a preliminary biogenic structure for the establishment of these biofilms. IMPORTANCE Worldwide demand for household appliances, such as dishwashers and washing machines, is increasing, as is the number of immunocompromised individuals. The harsh conditions in household dishwashers should prevent the growth of most microorganisms. However, our research shows that persisting polyextremotolerant groups of microorganisms in household appliances are well established under these unfavorable conditions and supported by the biofilm mode of growth. The significance of our research is in identifying the microbial composition of biofilms formed on dishwasher rubber seals, how diverse abiotic conditions affect microbiota, and which key microbial members were represented in early colonization and contamination of dishwashers, as these appliances can present a source of domestic cross-contamination that leads to broader medical impacts.
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43
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Perfumo A, Banat IM, Marchant R. Going Green and Cold: Biosurfactants from Low-Temperature Environments to Biotechnology Applications. Trends Biotechnol 2018; 36:277-289. [PMID: 29428461 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2017.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Approximately 80% of the Earth's biosphere is cold, at an average temperature of 5°C, and is populated by a diversity of microorganisms that are a precious source of molecules with high biotechnological potential. Biosurfactants from cold-adapted organisms can interact with multiple physical phases - water, ice, hydrophobic compounds, and gases - at low and freezing temperatures and be used in sustainable (green) and low-energy-impact (cold) products and processes. We review the biodiversity of microbial biosurfactants produced in cold habitats and provide a perspective on the most promising future applications in environmental and industrial technologies. Finally, we encourage exploring the cryosphere for novel types of biosurfactants via both culture screening and functional metagenomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amedea Perfumo
- GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, Section 5.3 Geomicrobiology, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Ibrahim M Banat
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, UK
| | - Roger Marchant
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, UK
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44
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Zupančič J, Raghupathi PK, Houf K, Burmølle M, Sørensen SJ, Gunde-Cimerman N. Synergistic Interactions in Microbial Biofilms Facilitate the Establishment of Opportunistic Pathogenic Fungi in Household Dishwashers. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:21. [PMID: 29441043 PMCID: PMC5797641 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilms formed on rubber seals in dishwashers harbor diverse microbiota. In this study, we focussed on the microbial composition of bacteria and fungi, isolated from a defined area of one square centimeter of rubber from four domestic dishwashers and assessed their abilities to in vitro multispecies biofilm formation. A total of 80 isolates (64 bacterial and 16 fungal) were analyzed. Multiple combinations of bacterial isolates from each dishwasher were screened for synergistic interactions. 32 out of 140 tested (23%) four-species bacterial combinations displayed consistent synergism leading to an overall increase in biomass, in all experimental trails. Bacterial isolates from two of the four dishwashers generated a high number of synergistically interacting four-species consortia. Network based correlation analyses also showed higher co-occurrence patterns observed between bacterial members in the same two dishwasher samples, indicating cooperative effects. Furthermore, two synergistic four-species bacterial consortia were tested for their abilities to incorporate an opportunistic fungal pathogen, Exophiala dermatitidis and their establishment as biofilms on sterile ethylene propylene diene monomer M-class (EPDM) rubber and polypropylene (PP) surfaces. When the bacterial consortia included E. dermatitidis, the overall cell numbers of both bacteria and fungi increased and a substantial increase in biofilm biomass was observed. These results indicate a novel phenomenon of cross kingdom synergy in biofilm formation and these observations could have potential implications for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerneja Zupančič
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Prem K Raghupathi
- Molecular Microbial Ecology Group, Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Laboratory of Hygiene and Technology, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kurt Houf
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Technology, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mette Burmølle
- Molecular Microbial Ecology Group, Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren J Sørensen
- Molecular Microbial Ecology Group, Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Nina Gunde-Cimerman
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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45
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Physico-chemistry of bacterial transmission versus adhesion. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2017; 250:15-24. [PMID: 29129313 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial adhesion is a main problem in many biomedical, domestic, natural and industrial environments and forms the onset of the formation of a biofilm, in which adhering bacteria grow into a multi-layered film while embedding themselves in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances. It is usually assumed that bacterial adhesion occurs from air or by convective-diffusion from a liquid suspension, but often bacteria adhere by transmission from a bacterially contaminated donor to a receiver surface. Therewith bacterial transmission is mechanistically different from adhesion, as it involves bacterial detachment from a donor surface followed by adhesion to a receiver one. Transmission is further complicated when the donor surface is not covered with a single layer of adhering bacteria but with a multi-layered biofilm, in which case bacteria can be transmitted either by interfacial failure at the biofilm-donor surface or through cohesive failure in the biofilm. Transmission through cohesive failure in a biofilm is more common than interfacial failure. The aim of this review is to oppose surface thermodynamics and adhesion force analyses, as can both be applied towards bacterial adhesion, with their appropriate extensions towards transmission. Opposition of surface thermodynamics and adhesion force analyses, will allow to distinguish between transmission of bacteria from a donor covered with a (sub)monolayer of adhering bacteria or a multi-layered biofilm. Contact angle measurements required for surface thermodynamic analyses of transmission are of an entirely different nature than analyses of adhesion forces, usually measured through atomic force microscopy. Nevertheless, transmission probabilities based on Weibull analyses of adhesion forces between bacteria and donor and receiver surfaces, correspond with the surface thermodynamic preferences of bacteria for either the donor or receiver surface. Surfaces with low adhesion forces such as polymer-brush coated or nanostructured surfaces are thus preferable for use as non-adhesive receiver surfaces, but at the same time should be avoided for use as a donor surface. Since bacterial transmission occurs under a contact pressure between two surfaces, followed by their separation under tensile or shear pressure and ultimately detachment, this will affect biofilm structure. During the compression phase of transmission, biofilms are compacted into a more dense film. After transmission, and depending on the ability of the bacterial strain involved to produce extracellular polymeric substances, biofilm left-behind on a donor or transmitted to a receiver surface will relax to its original, pre-transmission structure owing to the viscoelasticity of the extracellular polymeric substances matrix, when present. Apart from mechanistic differences between bacterial adhesion and transmission, the low numbers of bacteria generally transmitted require careful selection of suitably sensitive enumeration methods, for which culturing and optical coherence tomography are suggested. Opposing adhesion and transmission as done in this review, not only yields a better understanding of bacterial transmission, but may stimulate researchers to more carefully consider whether an adhesion or transmission model is most appropriate in the specific area of application aimed for, rather than routinely relying on adhesion models.
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46
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Rehberg L, Frontzek A, Melhus Å, Bockmühl D. Prevalence of
β
‐lactamase genes in domestic washing machines and dishwashers and the impact of laundering processes on antibiotic‐resistant bacteria. J Appl Microbiol 2017; 123:1396-1406. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. Rehberg
- Rhine‐Waal University of Applied Sciences Kleve Germany
| | - A. Frontzek
- Medical Care Center Dr. Stein + Colleagues Mönchengladbach Germany
| | - Å. Melhus
- Department of Medical Sciences/Section of Clinical Bacteriology Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
| | - D.P. Bockmühl
- Rhine‐Waal University of Applied Sciences Kleve Germany
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Hamilton KA, Ahmed W, Toze S, Haas CN. Human health risks for Legionella and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) from potable and non-potable uses of roof-harvested rainwater. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 119:288-303. [PMID: 28500949 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) of opportunistic pathogens Legionella pneumophila (LP) and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) was undertaken for various uses of roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW) reported in Queensland, Australia to identify appropriate usages and guide risk management practices. Risks from inhalation of aerosols due to showering, swimming in pools topped up with RHRW, use of a garden hose, car washing, and toilet flushing with RHRW were considered for LP while both ingestion (drinking, produce consumption, and accidental ingestion from various activities) and inhalation risks were considered for MAC. The drinking water route of exposure presented the greatest risks due to cervical lymphadenitis and disseminated infection health endpoints for children and immune-compromised populations, respectively. It is therefore not recommended that these populations consume untreated rainwater. LP risks were up to 6 orders of magnitude higher than MAC risks for the inhalation route of exposure for all scenarios. Both inhalation and ingestion QMRA simulations support that while drinking, showering, and garden hosing with RHRW may present the highest risks, car washing and clothes washing could constitute appropriate uses of RHRW for all populations, and toilet flushing and consumption of lettuce irrigation with RHRW would be appropriate for non- immune-compromised populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A Hamilton
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia; Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia
| | - Simon Toze
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia
| | - Charles N Haas
- Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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48
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Cardinale M, Kaiser D, Lueders T, Schnell S, Egert M. Microbiome analysis and confocal microscopy of used kitchen sponges reveal massive colonization by Acinetobacter, Moraxella and Chryseobacterium species. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5791. [PMID: 28725026 PMCID: PMC5517580 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-06055-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The built environment (BE) and in particular kitchen environments harbor a remarkable microbial diversity, including pathogens. We analyzed the bacterial microbiome of used kitchen sponges by 454–pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA genes and fluorescence in situ hybridization coupled with confocal laser scanning microscopy (FISH–CLSM). Pyrosequencing showed a relative dominance of Gammaproteobacteria within the sponge microbiota. Five of the ten most abundant OTUs were closely related to risk group 2 (RG2) species, previously detected in the BE and kitchen microbiome. Regular cleaning of sponges, indicated by their users, significantly affected the microbiome structure. Two of the ten dominant OTUs, closely related to the RG2-species Chryseobacterium hominis and Moraxella osloensis, showed significantly greater proportions in regularly sanitized sponges, thereby questioning such sanitation methods in a long term perspective. FISH–CLSM showed an ubiquitous distribution of bacteria within the sponge tissue, concentrating in internal cavities and on sponge surfaces, where biofilm–like structures occurred. Image analysis showed local densities of up to 5.4 * 1010 cells per cm3, and confirmed the dominance of Gammaproteobacteria. Our study stresses and visualizes the role of kitchen sponges as microbiological hot spots in the BE, with the capability to collect and spread bacteria with a probable pathogenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Cardinale
- Institute of Applied Microbiology, Research Center for BioSystems, Land Use, and Nutrition (IFZ), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Dominik Kaiser
- Faculty of Medical and Life Sciences, Institute of Precision Medicine (IPM), Microbiology and Hygiene Group, Furtwangen University, Villingen-Schwenningen, Germany
| | - Tillmann Lueders
- Institute of Groundwater Ecology, Helmholtz Zentrum München - German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Sylvia Schnell
- Institute of Applied Microbiology, Research Center for BioSystems, Land Use, and Nutrition (IFZ), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Markus Egert
- Faculty of Medical and Life Sciences, Institute of Precision Medicine (IPM), Microbiology and Hygiene Group, Furtwangen University, Villingen-Schwenningen, Germany.
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49
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Abstract
During the past decade, scientists have made great strides in understanding the microbiome's role in human health. Today, the microbiome has become key in scientific research, therapeutic development, medical treatment, and as a news feature in the media. Most studies have focused on the microbiome of our gut, but recently researchers have turned their attention to other microbiomes, including that of the skin. These studies of gut and skin microbiomes are yielding very informative results, new treatment strategies, and the development of new prebiotic and probiotic products for the treatment of many skin conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia Maguire
- BioRegenerative Sciences, Inc., 505 Coast Blvd South #208, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Greg Maguire
- BioRegenerative Sciences, Inc., 505 Coast Blvd South #208, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
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50
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Bockmühl DP. Laundry hygiene-how to get more than clean. J Appl Microbiol 2017; 122:1124-1133. [PMID: 28092141 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Although laundering should mainly remove stains and dirt from used and worn textiles, the elimination of microbial contamination is an important aim of the laundry process as well. While industrial and institutional laundering employs standardized processes using high temperatures (i.e. 60°C and above) and bleaching agents to ensure a sufficient hygienic reconditioning of textiles, domestic laundering processes are less defined and not always led by purposeful aims. The strive for energy efficiency of household appliances has resulted in a decrease in washing temperatures in Europe during the last decades and convenience aspects led to an increased use of liquid detergents that do not contain bleach which in turn impacts the antimicrobial efficacy of domestic laundering. This review compiles the different factors that influence the input and removal of micro-organisms in the laundering process and discusses the possible adverse effects of microbial contaminants in the washing machine and on the textiles as well as suitable counteractions.
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Affiliation(s)
- D P Bockmühl
- Rhine-Waal-University of Applied Sciences, Kleve, Germany
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