Immunoreactivity of Gluten-Sensitized Sera Toward Wheat, Rice, Corn, and Amaranth Flour Proteins Treated With Microbial Transglutaminase

Amaranth proteins and peptides: Biological properties and food uses

Amaranthus grains have attracted great attention due to its attractive health benefits. The grains have processing properties (e.g., starch related properties) similar to those of common cereals. Amaranth grains are gluten free and protein is a significant component of these grains. Proteins of the grains have been used in various food applications such as formulations of edible films and emulsions for controlled release of bioactive compounds. The proteins have been hydrolyzed using different enzymes to produce peptides and hydrolysates, which showed a range of biological functions including anti-hypertensive and antioxidant activities among others. They have been formulated into staple foods including breads and pastas for improved nutritional quality. This review summarizes the recent advances of the last 5 years in understanding the biological functions and food applications of proteins, protein hydrolysates and peptides from the grains of different Amaranthus species. Limitations in the studies summarized are critically discussed with an aim to improve the efficiency in amaranth grain protein and peptide research.

The use of microbial transglutaminase in a bread system: A study of gluten protein structure, deamidation state and protein digestion

Microbial transglutaminase (mTG) catalyses the formation of protein crosslinks, deamidating glutamine in a side-reaction. Gluten deamidation by human tissue transglutaminase is critical to activate celiac disease pathogenesis making the addition of mTG to wheat-based products controversial. The ability of mTG (0-2000 U.kg^-1) to alter gluten's structure, digestibility and the deamidation state of six immunogenic gluten peptides within bread was investigated. Gluten's structure was altered when mTG exceeded 100 U.kg^-1, determined by confocal microscopy, extractability and free sulfhydryl assays. The effect of mTG on six immunogenic peptides was investigated by in vitro digestion (INFOGEST) and mass spectrometry. The addition of mTG to bread (0-2000 U.kg^-1) did not alter the deamidation state or digestibility of the immunogenic peptides investigated. Overall, this investigation indicated that the addition of mTG to bread does not create activated gluten peptides. This analysis provides evidence for risk assessments of mTG as a food processing aid.

Processed Food Additive Microbial Transglutaminase and Its Cross-Linked Gliadin Complexes Are Potential Public Health Concerns in Celiac Disease

Microbial transglutaminase (mTG) is a survival factor for microbes, but yeasts, fungi, and plants also produce transglutaminase. mTG is a cross-linker that is heavily consumed as a protein glue in multiple processed food industries. According to the manufacturers' claims, microbial transglutaminase and its cross-linked products are safe, i.e., nonallergenic, nonimmunogenic, and nonpathogenic. The regulatory authorities declare it as "generally recognized as safe" for public users. However, scientific observations are accumulating concerning its undesirable effects on human health. Functionally, mTG imitates its family member, tissue transglutaminase, which is the autoantigen of celiac disease. Both these transglutaminases mediate cross-linked complexes, which are immunogenic in celiac patients. The enzyme enhances intestinal permeability, suppresses mechanical (mucus) and immunological (anti phagocytic) enteric protective barriers, stimulates luminal bacterial growth, and augments the uptake of gliadin peptide. mTG and gliadin molecules are cotranscytosed through the enterocytes and deposited subepithelially. Moreover, mucosal dendritic cell surface transglutaminase induces gliadin endocytosis, and the enzyme-treated wheat products are immunoreactive in CD patients. The present review summarizes and updates the potentially detrimental effects of mTG, aiming to stimulate scientific and regulatory debates on its safety, to protect the public from the enzyme's unwanted effects.

Mass spectrometry of in-gel digests reveals differences in amino acid sequences of high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits in spelt and emmer compared to common wheat

High-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) play an important role for the baking quality of wheat. The ancient wheats emmer and spelt differ in their HMW-GS pattern compared to modern common wheat and this might be one reason for their comparatively poor baking quality. The aim of this study was to elucidate similarities and differences in the amino acid sequences of two 1Bx HMW-GS of common wheat, spelt and emmer. First, the sodium dodecyl polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) system was optimized to separate common wheat, spelt and emmer Bx6 and Bx7 from other HMW-GS (e.g., 1Ax and 1By) in high concentrations. The in-gel digests of the Bx6 and Bx7 bands were analyzed by untargeted LC-MS/MS experiments revealing different UniProtKB accessions in spelt and emmer compared to common wheat. The HMW-GS Bx6 and Bx7, respectively, of emmer and spelt showed differences in the amino acid sequences compared to those of common wheat. The identities of the peptide variations were confirmed by targeted LC-MS/MS. These peptides can be used to differentiate between Bx6 and Bx7 of spelt and emmer and Bx6 and Bx7 of common wheat. The findings should help to increase the reliability and curation status of wheat protein databases and to understand the effects of protein structure on the functional properties. Graphical abstract.