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Huang J, Guo L, Huang X, Yu X, Lin L, Jiang X, Bai Z, Li Z. Multimodal Imaging-Guided Synergistic Photodynamic Therapy Using Carbonized Zn/Co Metal-Organic Framework Loaded with Cytotoxin Against Liver Cancer. Int J Nanomedicine 2024; 19:4163-4180. [PMID: 38751660 PMCID: PMC11095517 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s453275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose The study aimed to address the non-specific toxicity of cytotoxins (CTX) in liver cancer treatment and explore their combined application with the photosensitizer Ce6, co-loaded into carbonized Zn/Co bimetallic organic frameworks. The goal was to achieve controlled CTX release and synergistic photodynamic therapy, with a focus on evaluating anti-tumor activity against human liver cancer cell lines (Hep G2). Methods Purified cobra cytotoxin (CTX) and photosensitizer Ce6 were co-loaded into carbonized Zn/Co bimetallic organic frameworks, resulting in RGD-PDA@C-ZIF@(CTX+Ce6). The formulation was designed with surface-functionalization using polydopamine and tumor-penetrating peptide RGD. This approach aimed to facilitate controlled CTX release and enhance the synergistic effect of photodynamic therapy. The accumulation of RGD-PDA@C-ZIF@(CTX+Ce6) at tumor sites was achieved through RGD's active targeting and the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. In the acidic tumor microenvironment, the porous structure of the metal-organic framework disintegrated, releasing CTX and Ce6 into tumor cells. Results Experiments demonstrated that RGD-PDA@C-ZIF@(CTX+Ce6) nanoparticles, combined with near-infrared laser irradiation, exhibited optimal anti-tumor effects against human liver cancer cells. The formulation showcased heightened anti-tumor activity without discernible systemic toxicity. Conclusion The study underscores the potential of utilizing metal-organic frameworks as an efficient nanoplatform for co-loading cytotoxins and photodynamic therapy in liver cancer treatment. The developed formulation, RGD-PDA@C-ZIF@(CTX+Ce6), offers a promising avenue for advancing the clinical application of cytotoxins in oncology, providing a solid theoretical foundation for future research and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingmei Huang
- Department of Emergency, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lianshan Guo
- Department of Emergency, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxiao Huang
- Department of Emergency, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoping Yu
- Department of Radiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, People’s Republic of China
| | - Liqiao Lin
- Department of Emergency, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinlin Jiang
- Department of General Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhihao Bai
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530004, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhengzhao Li
- Department of Emergency, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, People’s Republic of China
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Adeyi AO, Ajisebiola BS, Sanni AA, Oladele JO, Mustapha ARK, Oyedara OO, Fagbenro OS. Kaempferol mitigates reproductive dysfunctions induced by Naja nigricollis venom through antioxidant system and anti-inflammatory response in male rats. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3933. [PMID: 38365877 PMCID: PMC10873395 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54523-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Naja nigricollis Venom (NnV) contains complex toxins that affects various vital systems functions after envenoming. The venom toxins have been reported to induce male reproductive disorders in envenomed rats. This present study explored the ameliorative potential of kaempferol on NnV-induced male reproductive toxicity. Fifty male wistar rats were sorted randomly into five groups (n = 10) for this study. Group 1 were noted as the control, while rats in groups 2 to 5 were injected with LD50 of NnV (1.0 mg/kg bw; i.p.). Group 2 was left untreated post envenomation while group 3 was treated with 0.2 ml of polyvalent antivenom. Groups 4 and 5 were treated with 4 and 8 mg/kg of kaempferol, respectively. NnV caused substantial reduction in concentrations of follicle stimulating hormone, testosterone and luteinizing hormone, while sperm motility, volume and counts significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in envenomed untreated rats. The venom enhanced malondialdehyde levels and substantially decreased glutathione levels, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities in the testes and epididymis of envenomed untreated rats. Additionally, epididymal and testicular myeloperoxidase activity and nitric oxide levels were elevated which substantiated severe morphological defects noticed in the reproductive organs. However, treatment of envenomed rats with kaempferol normalized the reproductive hormones with significant improvement on sperm functional parameters. Elevated inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers in testis and epididymis were suppressed post kaempferol treatment. Severe histopathological lesions in the epididymal and testicular tissues were ameliorated in the envenomed treated groups. Results highlights the significance of kaempferol in mitigating reproductive toxicity induced after snakebite envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Olukunle Silas Fagbenro
- Cell Biology and Genetics Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
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He D, Hu S, Huang Z, Mo C, Cheng X, Song P, Li Y, Song T, Guan Z, Zhou Y, Zhang X, Liao M. Metabolomics analyses of serum metabolites perturbations associated with Naja atra bite. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011507. [PMID: 37639406 PMCID: PMC10461852 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Naja atra bite is one of the most common severe snakebites in emergency departments. Unfortunately, the pathophysiological changes caused by Naja atra bite are unclear due to the lack of good animal models. In this study, an animal model of Naja atra bite in Guangxi Bama miniature pigs was established by intramuscular injection at 2 mg/kg of Naja atra venom, and serum metabolites were systematically analyzed using untargeted metabolomic and targeted metabolomic approaches. Untargeted metabolomic analysis revealed that 5045 chromatographic peaks were obtained in ESI+ and 3871 chromatographic peaks were obtained in ESI-. Screening in ESI+ modes and ESI- modes identified 22 and 36 differential metabolites compared to controls. The presence of 8 core metabolites of glutamine, arginine, proline, leucine, phenylalanine, inosine, thymidine and hippuric acid in the process of Naja atra bite was verified by targeted metabolomics significant difference (P<0.05). At the same time, during the verification process of the serum clinical samples with Naja atra bite, we found that the contents of three metabolites of proline, phenylalanine and inosine in the serum of the patients were significantly different from those of the normal human serum (P<0.05). By conducting functional analysis of core and metabolic pathway analysis, we revealed a potential correlation between changes in key metabolites after the Naja atra bite and the resulting pathophysiological alterations, and our research aims to establish a theoretical foundation for the prompt diagnosis and treatment of Naja atra bite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongling He
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Shaocong Hu
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Zhi Huang
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Caifeng Mo
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Xiaoyang Cheng
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Pengshu Song
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Yalan Li
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Tianlin Song
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Zhezhe Guan
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Yi Zhou
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Xuerong Zhang
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
| | - Ming Liao
- Life Science Institute Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, PR China
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Takayasu BS, Rodrigues SS, Madureira Trufen CE, Machado-Santelli GM, Onuki J. Effects on cell cycle progression and cytoskeleton organization of five Bothrops spp. venoms in cell culture-based assays. Heliyon 2023; 9:e18317. [PMID: 37539139 PMCID: PMC10393766 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake envenomation is a neglected tropical disease. In Brazil, the Bothrops genus is responsible for about 86% of snakebite accidents. Despite extensive evidence of the cytotoxicity of snake venoms, the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved are not fully understood, especially regarding the effects on cell cycle progression and cytoskeleton organization. Traditionally, the effectiveness and quality control tests of venoms and antivenoms are assessed by in vivo assays. Despite this, there is a rising effort to develop surrogate in vitro models according to the 3R principle (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement). In this study, we treated rat liver cells (BRL-3A) with venoms from five Bothrops species (B. jararaca, B. jararacussu, B. moojeni, B. alternatus, and B. neuwiedi) and analyzed cell viability and IC50 by MTT assay, cell cycle phases distribution by flow cytometry, and morphology and cytoskeleton alterations by immunofluorescence. In addition, we evaluated the correlation between IC50 and the enzymatic and biological activities of each venom. Our results indicated that Bothrops spp. venoms decreased the cell viability of rat liver BRL-3A cells. The rank order of potency was B. jararacussu > B. moojeni > B. alternatus > B. jararaca > B. neuwiedi. The mechanisms of cytotoxicity were related to microtubules and actin network disruption, but not to cell cycle arrest. No clear correlation was found between the IC50 and retrieved literature data of in vitro enzymatic and in vivo biological activities. This work contributed to understanding cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the Bothrops spp. venom cytotoxicity, which can help to improve envenomation treatment, as well as disclose potential therapeutic properties of snake venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Sayuri Takayasu
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Glaucia Maria Machado-Santelli
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Janice Onuki
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
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The secretory phenotypes of envenomed cells: Insights into venom cytotoxicity. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2023; 133:193-230. [PMID: 36707202 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2022.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Snake envenomation is listed as Category A Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) by World Health Organization, indicates a severe public health problem. The global figures for envenomation cases are estimated to be more than 1.8 million annually. Even if the affected victims survive the envenomation, they might suffer from permanent morbidity due to local envenomation. One of the most prominent local envenomation is dermonecrosis. Dermonecrosis is a pathophysiological outcome of envenomation that often causes disability in the victims due to surgical amputations, deformities, contracture, and chronic ulceration. The key venom toxins associated with this local symptom are mainly attributed to substantial levels of enzymatic and non-enzymatic toxins as well as their possible synergistic actions. Despite so, the severity of the local tissue damage is based on macroscopic observation of the bite areas. Furthermore, limited knowledge is known about the key biomarkers involved in the pathogenesis of dermonecrosis. The current immunotherapy with antivenom is also ineffective against dermonecrosis. These local effects eventually end up as sequelae. There is also a global shortage of toxins-targeted therapeutics attributed to inadequate knowledge of the actual molecular mechanisms of cytotoxicity. This chapter discusses the characterization of secretory phenotypes of dermonecrosis as an advanced tool to indicate its severity and pathogenesis in envenomation. Altogether, the secretory phenotypes of envenomed cells and tissues represent the precise characteristics of dermonecrosis caused by venom toxins.
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Tan CH, Wong KY, Huang LK, Tan KY, Tan NH, Wu WG. Snake Venomics and Antivenomics of Cape Cobra ( Naja nivea) from South Africa: Insights into Venom Toxicity and Cross-Neutralization Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120860. [PMID: 36548757 PMCID: PMC9783313 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Naja nivea (Cape Cobra) is endemic to southern Africa. Envenoming by N. nivea is neurotoxic, resulting in fatal paralysis. Its venom composition, however, has not been studied in depth, and specific antivenoms against it remain limited in supply. Applying a protein decomplexation approach, this study unveiled the venom proteome of N. nivea from South Africa. The major components in the venom are cytotoxins/cardiotoxins (~75.6% of total venom proteins) and alpha-neurotoxins (~7.4%), which belong to the three-finger toxin family. Intriguingly, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) was undetected-this is a unique venom phenotype increasingly recognized in the African cobras of the Uraeus subgenus. The work further showed that VINS African Polyvalent Antivenom (VAPAV) exhibited cross-reactivity toward the venom and immunorecognized its toxin fractions. In mice, VAPAV was moderately efficacious in cross-neutralizing the venom lethality with a potency of 0.51 mg/mL (amount of venom completely neutralized per milliliter of antivenom). In the challenge-rescue model, VAPAV prevented death in 75% of experimentally envenomed mice, with slow recovery from neurotoxicity up to 24 h. The finding suggests the potential para-specific utility of VAPAV for N. nivea envenoming, although a higher dose or repeated administration of the antivenom may be required to fully reverse the neurotoxic effect of the venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
- Correspondence: or
| | - Kin Ying Wong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
| | - Li-Kun Huang
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Wen-Guey Wu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
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Tan CH, Tan KY, Wong KY, Tan NH, Chong HP. Equatorial Spitting Cobra ( Naja sumatrana) from Malaysia (Negeri Sembilan and Penang), Southern Thailand, and Sumatra: Comparative Venom Proteomics, Immunoreactivity and Cross-Neutralization by Antivenom. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080522. [PMID: 36006183 PMCID: PMC9414237 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Equatorial Spitting Cobra (Naja sumatrana) is a medically important venomous snake species in Southeast Asia. Its wide geographical distribution implies potential intra-specific venom variation, while there is no species-specific antivenom available to treat its envenoming. Applying a protein-decomplexing proteomic approach, the study showed that three-finger toxins (3FTX), followed by phospholipases A2 (PLA2), were the major proteins well-conserved across N. sumatrana venoms of different locales. Variations were noted in the subtypes and relative abundances of venom proteins. Of note, alpha-neurotoxins (belonging to 3FTX) are the least in the Penang specimen (Ns-PG, 5.41% of total venom proteins), compared with geographical specimens from Negeri Sembilan (Ns-NS, 14.84%), southern Thailand (Ns-TH, 16.05%) and Sumatra (Ns-SU, 10.81%). The alpha-neurotoxin abundance, in general, correlates with the venom’s lethal potency. The Thai Naja kaouthia Monovalent Antivenom (NkMAV) was found to be immunoreactive toward the N. sumatrana venoms and is capable of cross-neutralizing N. sumatrana venom lethality to varying degrees (potency = 0.49–0.92 mg/mL, interpreted as the amount of venom completely neutralized per milliliter of antivenom). The potency was lowest against NS-SU venom, implying variable antigenicity of its lethal alpha-neurotoxins. Together, the findings suggest the para-specific and geographical utility of NkMAV as treatment for N. sumatrana envenoming in Southeast Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.W.); (H.P.C.)
- Correspondence: or
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.T.); (N.H.T.)
| | - Kin Ying Wong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.W.); (H.P.C.)
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.T.); (N.H.T.)
| | - Ho Phin Chong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.W.); (H.P.C.)
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Pharmacological Screening of Venoms from Five Brazilian Micrurus Species on Different Ion Channels. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147714. [PMID: 35887062 PMCID: PMC9318628 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Coral snake venoms from the Micrurus genus are a natural library of components with multiple targets, yet are poorly explored. In Brazil, 34 Micrurus species are currently described, and just a few have been investigated for their venom activities. Micrurus venoms are composed mainly of phospholipases A2 and three-finger toxins, which are responsible for neuromuscular blockade—the main envenomation outcome in humans. Beyond these two major toxin families, minor components are also important for the global venom activity, including Kunitz-peptides, serine proteases, 5′ nucleotidases, among others. In the present study, we used the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique to explore the crude venom activities of five different Micrurus species from the south and southeast of Brazil: M. altirostris, M. corallinus, M. frontalis, M. carvalhoi and M. decoratus. All five venoms induced full inhibition of the muscle-type α1β1δε nAChR with different levels of reversibility. We found M. altirostris and M. frontalis venoms acting as partial inhibitors of the neuronal-type α7 nAChR with an interesting subsequent potentiation after one washout. We discovered that M. altirostris and M. corallinus venoms modulate the α1β2 GABAAR. Interestingly, the screening on KV1.3 showed that all five Micrurus venoms act as inhibitors, being totally reversible after the washout. Since this activity seems to be conserved among different species, we hypothesized that the Micrurus venoms may rely on potassium channel inhibitory activity as an important feature of their envenomation strategy. Finally, tests on NaV1.2 and NaV1.4 showed that these channels do not seem to be targeted by Micrurus venoms. In summary, the venoms tested are multifunctional, each of them acting on at least two different types of targets.
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On characterizing the Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps) venom: Decomplexation proteomics, immunoreactivity and toxicity cross-neutralization by hetero-specific antivenoms. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART D, GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2022; 43:101006. [PMID: 35717758 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2022.101006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps) is a medically important venomous snake species in Southeast Asia, while there is no specific antivenom available for its envenoming. This study investigated the venom composition through a decomplexation proteomic approach, and examined the immunoreactivity as well as cross-neutralization efficacy of two hetero-specific krait antivenoms, Bungarus candidus Monovalent Antivenom (BcMAV) and Bungarus fasciatus Monovalent Antivenom (BfMAV), against the venom of B. flaviceps from Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 43 non-redundant proteoforms belonging to 10 toxin families were identified in the venom proteome, which is dominated by phospholipases A2 including beta-bungarotoxin lethal subunit (56.20 % of total venom proteins), Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitors (19.40 %), metalloproteinases (12.85 %) and three-finger toxins (7.73 %). The proteome varied in quantitative aspect from the earlier reported Indonesian (Sumatran) sample, suggesting geographical venom variation. BcMAV and BfMAV were immunoreactive toward the B. flaviceps venom, with BcMAV being more efficacious in immunological binding. Both antivenoms cross-neutralized the venom lethality with varying efficacy, where BcMAV was more potent than BfMAV by ~13 times (normalized potency: 38.04 mg/g vs. 2.73 mg/g, defined as the venom amount completely neutralized by one-gram antivenom protein), supporting the potential utility of BcMAV for para-specific neutralization against B. flaviceps venom.
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Hiu JJ, Yap MKK. The myth of cobra venom cytotoxin: More than just direct cytolytic actions. Toxicon X 2022; 14:100123. [PMID: 35434602 PMCID: PMC9011113 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2022.100123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cobra venom cytotoxin (CTX) is a non-enzymatic three-finger toxin that constitutes 40-60% of cobra venom. Thus, it plays an important role in the pathophysiology of cobra envenomation, especially in local dermonecrosis. The three-finger hydrophobic loops of CTX determine the cytotoxicity. Nevertheless, the actual mechanisms of cytotoxicity are not fully elucidated as they involve not only cytolytic actions but also intracellular signalling-mediated cell death pathways. Furthermore, the possible transition cell death pattern remains to be explored. The actual molecular mechanisms require further studies to unveil the relationship between different CTXs from different cobra species and cell types which may result in differential cell death patterns. Here, we discuss the biophysical interaction of CTX with the cell membrane involving four binding modes: electrostatic interaction, hydrophobic partitioning, isotropic phase, and oligomerisation. Oligomerisation of CTX causes pore formation in the membrane lipid bilayer. Additionally, the CTX-induced apoptotic pathway can be executed via death receptor-mediated extrinsic pathways and mitochondrial-mediated intrinsic pathways. We also discuss lysosomal-mediated necrosis and the occurrence of necroptosis following CTX action. Collectively, we provided an insight into concentration-dependent transition of cell death pattern which involves different mechanistic actions. This contributes a new direction for further investigation of cytotoxic pathways activated by the CTXs for future development of biotherapeutics targeting pathological effects caused by CTX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Jin Hiu
- School of Science, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Michelle Khai Khun Yap
- School of Science, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Tropical Medicine and Biology Multidisciplinary Platform, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
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Chong HP, Tan KY, Liu BS, Sung WC, Tan CH. Cytotoxicity of Venoms and Cytotoxins from Asiatic Cobras (Naja kaouthia, Naja sumatrana, Naja atra) and Neutralization by Antivenoms from Thailand, Vietnam, and Taiwan. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050334. [PMID: 35622581 PMCID: PMC9144634 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Envenoming by cobras (Naja spp.) often results in extensive local tissue necrosis when optimal treatment with antivenom is not available. This study investigated the cytotoxicity of venoms and purified cytotoxins from the Monocled Cobra (Naja kaouthia), Taiwan Cobra (Naja atra), and Equatorial Spitting Cobra (Naja sumatrana) in a mouse fibroblast cell line, followed by neutralization of the cytotoxicity by three regional antivenoms: the Thai Naja kaouthia monovalent antivenom (NkMAV), Vietnamese snake antivenom (SAV) and Taiwanese Neuro bivalent antivenom (NBAV). The cytotoxins of N. atra (NA-CTX) and N. sumatrana (NS-CTX) were identified as P-type cytotoxins, whereas that of N. kaouthia (NK-CTX) is S-type. All venoms and purified cytotoxins demonstrated varying concentration-dependent cytotoxicity in the following trend: highest for N. atra, followed by N. sumatrana and N. kaouthia. The antivenoms moderately neutralized the cytotoxicity of N. kaouthia venom but were weak against N. atra and N. sumatrana venom cytotoxicity. The neutralization potencies of the antivenoms against the cytotoxins were varied and generally low across NA-CTX, NS-CTX, and NK-CTX, possibly attributed to limited antigenicity of CTXs and/or different formulation of antivenom products. The study underscores the need for antivenom improvement and/or new therapies in treating local tissue toxicity caused by cobra envenomings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho Phin Chong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Bing-Sin Liu
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli 35053, Taiwan;
| | - Wang-Chou Sung
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli 35053, Taiwan;
- Correspondence: (W.-C.S.); (C.H.T.)
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (W.-C.S.); (C.H.T.)
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12
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Ha SJ, Choi YO, Kwag EB, Kim SD, Yoo HS, Kang IC, Park SJ. Qualitative Analysis of Proteins in Two Snake Venoms, Gloydius Blomhoffii and Agkistrodon Acutus. J Pharmacopuncture 2022; 25:52-62. [PMID: 35371588 PMCID: PMC8947974 DOI: 10.3831/kpi.2022.25.1.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Snake venom is a complex mixture of various pharmacologically active substances, such as small proteins, peptides, and organic and mineral components. This paper aims to identify and analyse the proteins in common venomous snakes, such as Gloydius blomhoffii (G. blomhoffii) and Agkistrodon acutus (A. acutus), in Korea. Methods We used mass spectrometry, electrophoresis, N-terminal sequencing and in-gel digestion to analyse the proteins in these two snake venoms. Results We identified eight proteins in G. blomhoffii venom and four proteins in A. acutus venom. The proteins detected in G. blomhoffii and A. acutus venoms were phospholipase A2, snake venom metalloproteinase and cysteine-rich secretory protein. Snake C-type lectin (snaclec) was unique to A. acutus venom. Conclusion These data will contribute to the current knowledge of proteins present in the venoms of viper snakes and provide useful information for investigating their therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Jeong Ha
- East West Cancer Center, Daejeon Korean Medicine Hospital, Daejeon University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeo-Ok Choi
- Bio Research Institute of Biotechnology, Goyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Bin Kwag
- East West Cancer Center, Daejeon Korean Medicine Hospital, Daejeon University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo-Dam Kim
- East West Cancer Center, Daejeon Korean Medicine Hospital, Daejeon University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwa-seung Yoo
- East West Cancer Center, Seoul Korean Medicine Hospital, Daejeon University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Cheol Kang
- Department of Biological Science and BioChip Research Center, Hoseo University, Asan, Republic of Korea
- InnoPharmaScreen Inc., Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - So-Jung Park
- East West Cancer Center, Daejeon Korean Medicine Hospital, Daejeon University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
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13
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Snake Venomics: Fundamentals, Recent Updates, and a Look to the Next Decade. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040247. [PMID: 35448856 PMCID: PMC9028316 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomic research, powered by techniques adapted from proteomics, transcriptomics, and genomics, seeks to unravel the diversity and complexity of venom through which knowledge can be applied in the treatment of envenoming, biodiscovery, and conservation. Snake venom proteomics is most extensively studied, but the methods varied widely, creating a massive amount of information which complicates data comparison and interpretation. Advancement in mass spectrometry technology, accompanied by growing databases and sophisticated bioinformatic tools, has overcome earlier limitations of protein identification. The progress, however, remains challenged by limited accessibility to samples, non-standardized quantitative methods, and biased interpretation of -omic data. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies enable high-throughput venom-gland transcriptomics and genomics, complementing venom proteomics by providing deeper insights into the structural diversity, differential expression, regulation and functional interaction of the toxin genes. Venomic tissue sampling is, however, difficult due to strict regulations on wildlife use and transfer of biological materials in some countries. Limited resources for techniques and funding are among other pertinent issues that impede the progress of venomics, particularly in less developed regions and for neglected species. Genuine collaboration between international researchers, due recognition of regional experts by global organizations (e.g., WHO), and improved distribution of research support, should be embraced.
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Dubovskii PV, Dubova KM, Bourenkov G, Starkov VG, Konshina AG, Efremov RG, Utkin YN, Samygina VR. Variability in the Spatial Structure of the Central Loop in Cobra Cytotoxins Revealed by X-ray Analysis and Molecular Modeling. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020149. [PMID: 35202176 PMCID: PMC8880459 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cobra cytotoxins (CTs) belong to the three-fingered protein family and possess membrane activity. Here, we studied cytotoxin 13 from Naja naja cobra venom (CT13Nn). For the first time, a spatial model of CT13Nn with both “water” and “membrane” conformations of the central loop (loop-2) were determined by X-ray crystallography. The “water” conformation of the loop was frequently observed. It was similar to the structure of loop-2 of numerous CTs, determined by either NMR spectroscopy in aqueous solution, or the X-ray method. The “membrane” conformation is rare one and, to date has only been observed by NMR for a single cytotoxin 1 from N. oxiana (CT1No) in detergent micelle. Both CT13Nn and CT1No are S-type CTs. Membrane-binding of these CTs probably involves an additional step—the conformational transformation of the loop-2. To confirm this suggestion, we conducted molecular dynamics simulations of both CT1No and CT13Nn in the Highly Mimetic Membrane Model of palmitoiloleoylphosphatidylglycerol, starting with their “water” NMR models. We found that the both toxins transform their “water” conformation of loop-2 into the “membrane” one during the insertion process. This supports the hypothesis that the S-type CTs, unlike their P-type counterparts, require conformational adaptation of loop-2 during interaction with lipid membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter V. Dubovskii
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya str., 117997 Moscow, Russia; (V.G.S.); (A.G.K.); (R.G.E.); (Y.N.U.)
- Correspondence: or
| | - Kira M. Dubova
- FSRC “Crystallography and Photonics”, Russian Academy of Sciences, 111933 Moscow, Russia; (K.M.D.); (V.R.S.)
- NRC “Kurchatov Institute”, 123182 Moscow, Russia
| | - Gleb Bourenkov
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Hamburg Unit, c/o DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany;
| | - Vladislav G. Starkov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya str., 117997 Moscow, Russia; (V.G.S.); (A.G.K.); (R.G.E.); (Y.N.U.)
| | - Anastasia G. Konshina
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya str., 117997 Moscow, Russia; (V.G.S.); (A.G.K.); (R.G.E.); (Y.N.U.)
| | - Roman G. Efremov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya str., 117997 Moscow, Russia; (V.G.S.); (A.G.K.); (R.G.E.); (Y.N.U.)
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University), 9 Institutskiy per., 141700 Dolgoprudny, Russia
- Higher School of Economics, National Research University, 20 Myasnitskaya str., 101000 Moscow, Russia
| | - Yuri N. Utkin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya str., 117997 Moscow, Russia; (V.G.S.); (A.G.K.); (R.G.E.); (Y.N.U.)
| | - Valeriya R. Samygina
- FSRC “Crystallography and Photonics”, Russian Academy of Sciences, 111933 Moscow, Russia; (K.M.D.); (V.R.S.)
- NRC “Kurchatov Institute”, 123182 Moscow, Russia
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15
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Averin AS, Nenov MN, Starkov VG, Tsetlin VI, Utkin YN. Effects of Cardiotoxins from Naja oxiana Cobra Venom on Rat Heart Muscle and Aorta: A Comparative Study of Toxin-Induced Contraction Mechanisms. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:88. [PMID: 35202116 PMCID: PMC8878657 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiotoxins (CaTxs) are a group of snake toxins that affect the cardiovascular system (CVS). Two types (S and P) of CaTxs are known, but the exact differences in the effects of these types on CVS have not been thoroughly studied. We investigated cellular mechanisms of action on CVS for Naja oxiana cobra CaTxs CTX-1 (S-type) and CTX-2 (P-type) focusing on the papillary muscle (PM) contractility and contraction of aortic rings (AR) supplemented by pharmacological analysis. It was found that CTX-1 and CTX-2 exerted dose-dependent effects manifested in PM contracture and AR contraction. CTX-2 impaired functions of PM and AR more strongly than CTX-1. Effects of CaTxs on PM were significantly reduced by nifedipine, an L-type Ca2+ channel blocker, and by KB-R7943, an inhibitor of reverse-mode Na+/Ca2+ exchange. Furthermore, 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate, an inhibitor of store-operated calcium entry, partially restored PM contractility damaged by CaTxs. The CaTx influence on AR contracture was significantly reduced by nifedipine and KB-R7943. The involvement of reverse-mode Na+/Ca2+ exchange in the effect of CaTxs on the rat aorta was shown for the first time. The results obtained indicate that CaTx effects on CVS are mainly associated with disturbance of transporting systems responsible for the Ca2+ influx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey S. Averin
- Institute of Cell Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Federal Research Center “Pushchino Scientific Center of Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences”, 142290 Pushchino, Russia;
| | - Miroslav N. Nenov
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia;
| | - Vladislav G. Starkov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (V.G.S.); (V.I.T.)
| | - Victor I. Tsetlin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (V.G.S.); (V.I.T.)
| | - Yuri N. Utkin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (V.G.S.); (V.I.T.)
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16
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Mender MM, Bolton F, Berry C, Young M. Antivenom: An immunotherapy for the treatment of snakebite envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 129:435-477. [PMID: 35305724 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming (SBE) leads to significant morbidity and mortality, resulting in over 90,000 deaths and approximately 400,000 amputations annually. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) alone, SBE accounts for over 30,000 deaths per annum. Since 2017, SBE has been classified as a priority Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) by the World Health Organisation (WHO). The major species responsible for mortality from SBE within SSA are from the Bitis, Dendroaspis, Echis and Naja genera. Pharmacologically active toxins such as metalloproteinases, serine proteinases, 3-finger toxins, kunitz-type toxins, and phospholipase A2s are the primary snake venom components. These toxins induce cytotoxicity, coagulopathy, hemorrhage, and neurotoxicity in envenomed victims. Antivenom is currently the only available venom-specific treatment for SBE and contains purified equine or ovine polyclonal antibodies, collected from donor animals repeatedly immunized with low doses of adjuvanted venom. The resulting plasma or serum contains a high titre of specific antibodies, which can then be collected and stored until required. The purified antibodies are either whole IgG, monovalent fragment antibody (Fab) or divalent fragment antibody F(ab')2. Despite pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic differences, all three are effective in the treatment of SBE. No antivenom is without adverse reactions but, the level of their impact and severity varies from benign early adverse reactions to the rarely occurring fatal anaphylactic shock. However, the major side effects are largely reversible with immediate administration of adrenaline and corticosteroids. There are 16 different antivenoms marketed within SSA, but the efficacy and safety profiles are only published for less than 50% of these products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mender M Mender
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; Department of Research and Development, MicroPharm Ltd, Newcastle Emlyn, United Kingdom.
| | - Fiona Bolton
- Department of Research and Development, MicroPharm Ltd, Newcastle Emlyn, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Berry
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Young
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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17
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Patra A, Kalita B, Khadilkar MV, Salvi NC, Shelke PV, Mukherjee AK. Assessment of quality and pre-clinical efficacy of a newly developed polyvalent antivenom against the medically important snakes of Sri Lanka. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18238. [PMID: 34521877 PMCID: PMC8440654 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97501-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake envenomation is a severe problem in Sri Lanka (SL) and Indian polyvalent antivenom (PAV) is mostly used for treating snakebite albeit due to geographical variation in venom composition, Indian PAV shows poor efficacy in neutralizing the lethality and toxicity of venom from the same species of snakes in SL. Therefore, the quality and in vivo venom neutralization potency of a country-specific PAV produced against the venom of the five most medically important snakes of SL (Daboia russelii, Echis carinatus, Hypnale hypnale, Naja naja, Bungarus caeruleus) was assessed. LC-MS/MS analysis of two batches of PAV showed the presence of 88.7-97.2% IgG and traces of other plasma proteins. The tested PAVs contained minor amounts of undigested IgG and F(ab')2 aggregates, showed complement activation, were devoid of IgE, endotoxin, and content of preservative was below the threshold level. Immunological cross-reactivity and in vitro neutralization of enzymatic activities, pharmacological properties demonstrated superior efficacy of SL PAV compared to Indian PAV against SL snake venoms. The in vivo neutralization study showed that the tested PAVs are potent to neutralize the lethality and venom-induced toxicity of SL snake venoms. Therefore, our study suggests that introduction of SL-specific PAV will improve snakebite management in SL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparup Patra
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, School of Science, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, 784028, India
| | - Bhargab Kalita
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, School of Science, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, 784028, India
| | - Milind V Khadilkar
- Premium Serums and Vaccines Pvt. Ltd, Narayangaon, Pune, Maharashtra, 410504, India
| | - Nitin C Salvi
- Premium Serums and Vaccines Pvt. Ltd, Narayangaon, Pune, Maharashtra, 410504, India
| | - Pravin V Shelke
- Premium Serums and Vaccines Pvt. Ltd, Narayangaon, Pune, Maharashtra, 410504, India
| | - Ashis K Mukherjee
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, School of Science, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, 784028, India.
- Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Vigyan Path, Garchuk, Paschim Boragaon, Guwahati, Assam, 781035, India.
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18
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Naja atra Cardiotoxin 1 Induces the FasL/Fas Death Pathway in Human Leukemia Cells. Cells 2021; 10:cells10082073. [PMID: 34440842 PMCID: PMC8394927 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the mechanistic pathway of Naja atra (Taiwan cobra) cardiotoxin 1 (CTX1)-induced death of leukemia cell lines U937 and HL-60. CTX1 increased cytoplasmic Ca2+ and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, leading to the death of U937 cells. It was found that Ca2+-induced NOX4 upregulation promoted ROS-mediated p38 MAPK phosphorylation, which consequently induced c-Jun and ATF-2 phosphorylation. Using siRNA knockdown, activated c-Jun and ATF-2 were demonstrated to regulate the expression of Fas and FasL, respectively. Suppression of Ca2+-mediated NOX4 expression or ROS-mediated p38 MAPK activation increased the survival of U937 cells exposed to CTX1. FADD depletion abolished CTX1-induced cell death, caspase-8 activation, and t-Bid production, supporting the correlation between the Fas death pathway and CTX1-mediated cytotoxicity. Among the tested N. atra CTX isotoxins, only CTX1 induced Fas and FasL expression. Chemical modification studies revealed that intact Met residues were essential for the activity of CTX1 to upregulate Fas and FasL expression. Taken together, the data in this study indicate that CTX1 induces c-Jun-mediated Fas and ATF-2-mediated FasL transcription by the Ca2+/NOX4/ROS/p38 MAPK axis, thereby activating the Fas death pathway in U937 cells. Furthermore, CTX1 activates Fas/FasL death signaling in the leukemia cell line HL-60.
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19
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Wong KY, Tan KY, Tan NH, Gnanathasan CA, Tan CH. Elucidating the Venom Diversity in Sri Lankan Spectacled Cobra ( Naja naja) through De Novo Venom Gland Transcriptomics, Venom Proteomics and Toxicity Neutralization. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:558. [PMID: 34437429 PMCID: PMC8402536 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Inadequate effectiveness of Indian antivenoms in treating envenomation caused by the Spectacled Cobra/Indian Cobra (Naja naja) in Sri Lanka has been attributed to geographical variations in the venom composition. This study investigated the de novo venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics of the Sri Lankan N. naja (NN-SL) to elucidate its toxin gene diversity and venom variability. The neutralization efficacy of a commonly used Indian antivenom product in Sri Lanka was examined against the lethality induced by NN-SL venom in mice. The transcriptomic study revealed high expression of 22 toxin genes families in NN-SL, constituting 46.55% of total transcript abundance. Three-finger toxins (3FTX) were the most diversely and abundantly expressed (87.54% of toxin gene expression), consistent with the dominance of 3FTX in the venom proteome (72.19% of total venom proteins). The 3FTX were predominantly S-type cytotoxins/cardiotoxins (CTX) and α-neurotoxins of long-chain or short-chain subtypes (α-NTX). CTX and α-NTX are implicated in local tissue necrosis and fatal neuromuscular paralysis, respectively, in envenomation caused by NN-SL. Intra-species variations in the toxin gene sequences and expression levels were apparent between NN-SL and other geographical specimens of N. naja, suggesting potential antigenic diversity that impacts antivenom effectiveness. This was demonstrated by limited potency (0.74 mg venom/ml antivenom) of the Indian polyvalent antivenom (VPAV) in neutralizing the NN-SL venom. A pan-regional antivenom with improved efficacy to treat N. naja envenomation is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kin Ying Wong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | | | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
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20
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Giribaldi J, Smith JJ, Schroeder CI. Recent developments in animal venom peptide nanotherapeutics with improved selectivity for cancer cells. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 50:107769. [PMID: 33989705 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Animal venoms are a rich source of bioactive peptides that efficiently modulate key receptors and ion channels involved in cellular excitability to rapidly neutralize their prey or predators. As such, they have been a wellspring of highly useful pharmacological tools for decades. Besides targeting ion channels, some venom peptides exhibit strong cytotoxic activity and preferentially affect cancer over healthy cells. This is unlikely to be driven by an evolutionary impetus, and differences in tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment are probably behind the serendipitous selectivity shown by some venom peptides. However, strategies such as bioconjugation and nanotechnologies are showing potential to improve their selectivity and potency, thereby paving the way to efficiently harness new anticancer mechanisms offered by venom peptides. This review aims to highlight advances in nano- and chemotherapeutic tools and prospective anti-cancer drug leads derived from animal venom peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Giribaldi
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Jennifer J Smith
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Christina I Schroeder
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
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21
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Wong KY, Tan KY, Tan NH, Tan CH. A Neurotoxic Snake Venom without Phospholipase A 2: Proteomics and Cross-Neutralization of the Venom from Senegalese Cobra, Naja senegalensis (Subgenus: Uraeus). Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13010060. [PMID: 33466660 PMCID: PMC7828783 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Senegalese cobra, Naja senegalensis, is a non-spitting cobra species newly erected from the Naja haje complex. Naja senegalensis causes neurotoxic envenomation in Western Africa but its venom properties remain underexplored. Applying a protein decomplexation proteomic approach, this study unveiled the unique complexity of the venom composition. Three-finger toxins constituted the major component, accounting for 75.91% of total venom proteins. Of these, cardiotoxin/cytotoxin (~53%) and alpha-neurotoxins (~23%) predominated in the venom proteome. Phospholipase A2, however, was not present in the venom, suggesting a unique snake venom phenotype found in this species. The venom, despite the absence of PLA2, is highly lethal with an intravenous LD50 of 0.39 µg/g in mice, consistent with the high abundance of alpha-neurotoxins (predominating long neurotoxins) in the venom. The hetero-specific VINS African Polyvalent Antivenom (VAPAV) was immunoreactive to the venom, implying conserved protein antigenicity in the venoms of N. senegalensis and N. haje. Furthermore, VAPAV was able to cross-neutralize the lethal effect of N. senegalensis venom but the potency was limited (0.59 mg venom completely neutralized per mL antivenom, or ~82 LD50 per ml of antivenom). The efficacy of antivenom should be further improved to optimize the treatment of cobra bite envenomation in Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kin Ying Wong
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.T.); (N.H.T.)
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.T.); (N.H.T.)
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +60-3-7967-6685
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22
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Tan CH, Bourges A, Tan KY. King Cobra and snakebite envenomation: on the natural history, human-snake relationship and medical importance of Ophiophagus hannah. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2021; 27:e20210051. [PMID: 35069710 PMCID: PMC8733962 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2021-0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) has a significant place in many
cultures, and is a medically important venomous snake in the world. Envenomation
by this snake is highly lethal, manifested mainly by neurotoxicity and local
tissue damage. King Cobra may be part of a larger species complex, and is widely
distributed across Southeast Asia, southern China, northern and eastern regions
as well as the Western Ghats of India, indicating potential geographical
variation in venom composition. There is, however, only one species-specific
King Cobra antivenom available worldwide that is produced in Thailand, using
venom from the snake of Thai origin. Issues relating to the management of King
Cobra envenomation (e.g., variation in the composition and
toxicity of the venom, limited availability and efficacy of antivenom), and
challenges faced in the research of venom (in particular proteomics), are rarely
addressed. This article reviews the natural history and sociocultural importance
of King Cobra, cases of snakebite envenomation caused by this species, current
practice of management (preclinical and clinical), and major toxinological
studies of the venom with a focus on venom proteomics, toxicity and
neutralization. Unfortunately, epidemiological data of King Cobra bite is
scarce, and venom proteomes reported in various studies revealed marked
discrepancies in details. Challenges, such as inconsistency in snake venom
sampling, varying methodology of proteomic analysis, lack of mechanistic and
antivenomic studies, and controversy surrounding antivenom use in treating King
Cobra envenomation are herein discussed. Future directions are proposed,
including the effort to establish a standard, comprehensive Pan-Asian proteomic
database of King Cobra venom, from which the venom variation can be determined.
Research should be undertaken to characterize the toxin antigenicity, and to
develop an antivenom with improved efficacy and wider geographical utility. The
endeavors are aligned with the WHO´s roadmap that aims to reduce the disease
burden of snakebite by 50% before 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aymeric Bourges
- University of Malaya, Malaysia; Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
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