Amygdala Circuitry During Neurofeedback Training and Symptoms' Change in Adolescents With Varying Depression

Experience-dependent neurodevelopment of self-regulation in adolescence

Adolescence is a period of rapid biobehavioral change, characterized in part by increased neural maturation and sensitivity to one's environment. In this review, we aim to demonstrate that self-regulation skills are tuned by adolescents' social, cultural, and socioeconomic contexts. We discuss adjacent literatures that demonstrate the importance of experience-dependent learning for adolescent development: environmental contextual influences and training paradigms that aim to improve regulation skills. We first highlight changes in prominent limbic and cortical regions-like the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex-as well as structural and functional connectivity between these areas that are associated with adolescents' regulation skills. Next, we consider how puberty, the hallmark developmental milestone in adolescence, helps instantiate these biobehavioral adaptations. We then survey the existing literature demonstrating the ways in which cultural, socioeconomic, and interpersonal contexts drive behavioral and neural adaptation for self-regulation. Finally, we highlight promising results from regulation training paradigms that suggest training may be especially efficacious for adolescent samples. In our conclusion, we highlight some exciting frontiers in human self-regulation research as well as recommendations for improving the methodological implementation of developmental neuroimaging studies and training paradigms.

Neurofeedback and Affect Regulation Circuitry in Depressed and Healthy Adolescents

Neurodevelopmental psychopathology seeks to understand higher-order emotion regulation circuitry to develop new therapies for adolescents with depression. Depressed (N = 34) and healthy youth (N = 19) completed neurofeedback (NF) training and exhibited increased bilateral amygdala and hippocampus activity in the region of interest (ROI) analyses by recalling positive autobiographical memories. We tested factors supportive of the engagement of emotion regulation's neural areas during NF (i.e., parental support, medication, and gender effects upon anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) engagement). Whole-brain analyses yielded effects of NF vs. control condition and effects of diagnosis. Youth showed higher amygdala and hippocampus (AMYHIPPO) activity during the NF vs. control condition, particularly in the left hippocampus. ACC's activity was also higher during NF vs. control. Higher average ACC activity was linked to better parental support, absent depression, female gender, and absent medication. Control youth showed higher average AMYHIPPO and ACC activity throughout the task and a faster decline in activity vs. depressed youths. Whole-brain level analyses showed higher activity in the frontotemporal network during the NF vs. control conditions, suggesting targeting their connectivity in future neurofeedback trials.

Social Processing in Eating Disorders: Neuroimaging Paradigms and Research Domain Organizational Constructs

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Social and environmental factors have been related to both symptom expression of disordered eating in individuals and changes in the prevalence of eating disorders (EDs) in populations. Neural differences in processing social information may contribute to EDs. This review assesses the evidence for aberrant neural responses during social processing in EDs.

RECENT FINDINGS

This review examines how constructs within the social processing domain have been evaluated by neuroimaging paradigms in EDs, including communication, affiliation, and understanding of both oneself and others. Differences related to social processing in EDs include altered processing for self-relevant stimuli, in the context of identity, valence, expectations, and affiliative relationships. Future work is needed to integrate how differences in processing social stimuli relate to alterations in cognitive control and reward as well as specific disordered eating symptoms.

Self-Enhancement and the Medial Prefrontal Cortex: The Convergence of Clinical and Experimental Findings

Self-enhancement (SE) is often overlooked as a fundamental cognitive ability mediated via the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC). Here, we present research that establishes the relationship between the PFC, SE, and the potential evolved beneficial mechanisms. Specifically, we believe there is now enough evidence to speculate that SE exists to provide significant benefits and should be considered a normal aspect of the self. Whatever the metabolic or social cost, the upside of SE is great enough that it is a core and fundamental psychological construct. Furthermore, though entirely theoretical, we suggest that a critical reason the PFC has evolved so significantly in Homo sapiens is to, in part, sustain SE. We, therefore, elaborate on its proximate and ultimate mechanisms.

Stress-related hippocampus activation mediates the association between polyvictimization and trait anxiety in adolescents

Early life stress exposures are associated with adverse health outcomes and heightened anxiety symptoms in adolescents. Stress-sensitive brain regions like the hippocampus and amygdala are particularly impacted by early life adversities and are also implicated in the development of anxiety disorders. However, to date, no studies have specifically examined the neural correlates of polyvictimization (exposure to multiple categories of victimization) or the contribution of stress-sensitive neural nodes to polyvictimization's impact on mental health. To elucidate these relationships, the current study analyzed associations between polyvictimization, hippocampal and amygdalar activation during an acute stress task and trait anxiety in a sample of 80 children and adolescents aged 9-16 years (33 female participants). Results showed that polyvictimization was associated with higher trait anxiety as well as greater stress-related right hippocampus activation, and this greater hippocampal activity predicted heightened trait anxiety. Robust mediation analyses revealed that stress-related right hippocampus activation partially mediated the relationship between polyvictimization and trait anxiety. Our results expand upon the existing polyvictimization literature by suggesting a possible neurobiological pathway through which polyvictimization is connected to the etiology of mental illness.

Semantic fMRI neurofeedback: A Multi-Subject Study at 3 Tesla

OBJECTIVE

Real-time fMRI neurofeedback is a non-invasive procedure allowing the self-regulation of brain functions via enhanced self-control of fMRI based neural activation. In semantic real-time fMRI neurofeedback, an estimated relation between multivariate fMRI activation patterns and abstract mental states is exploited for a multi-dimensional feedback stimulus via real-time representational similarity analysis (rt-RSA). Here, we assessed the performances of this framework in a multi-subject multi-session study on a 3T MRI clinical scanner.

APPROACH

Eighteen healthy volunteers underwent two semantic real-time fMRI neurofeedback sessions on two different days. In each session, participants were first requested to engage in specific mental states while local fMRI patterns of brain activity were recorded during stimulated mental imagery of concrete objects (pattern generation). The obtained neural representations were to be replicated and modulated by the participants in subsequent runs of the same session under the guidance of a rt-RSA generated visual feedback (pattern modulation). Performance indicators were derived from the rt-RSA output to assess individual abilities in replicating (and maintaining over time) a target pattern. Simulations were carried out to assess the impact of the geometric distortions implied by the low-dimensional representation of patterns' dissimilarities in the visual feedback.

MAIN RESULTS

Sixteen subjects successfully completed both semantic real-time fMRI neurofeedback sessions. Considering some performance indicators, a significant improvement between the first and the second runs, and within run increasing modulation performances were observed, whereas no improvements were found between sessions. Simulations confirmed that in a small percentage of cases visual feedback could be affected by metric distortions due to dimensionality reduction implicit to the rt-RSA approach.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results proved the feasibility of the semantic real-time fMRI neurofeedback at 3T, showing that subjects can successfully modulate and maintain a target mental state, guided by rt-RSA derived feedback. Further development is needed to encourage future clinical applications.

Resting-state functional connectivity in adolescents experiencing subclinical and clinical symptoms of depression: A mini-review of recent evidence

Adolescence is a developmental period associated with major neural reorganization and the onset of many psychological disorders. Depression in particular is prevalent and impairing in adolescents, and rates have been rising in recent years. Recent advances in the neurobiology of adolescent depression contribute to a better understanding of functional connectivity among neural networks and represent a promising start for determining biomarkers of depression and potential areas of intervention.

The Neurological Asymmetry of Self-Face Recognition

While the desire to uncover the neural correlates of consciousness has taken numerous directions, self-face recognition has been a constant in attempts to isolate aspects of self-awareness. The neuroimaging revolution of the 1990s brought about systematic attempts to isolate the underlying neural basis of self-face recognition. These studies, including some of the first fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) examinations, revealed a right-hemisphere bias for self-face recognition in a diverse set of regions including the insula, the dorsal frontal lobe, the temporal parietal junction, and the medial temporal cortex. In this systematic review, we provide confirmation of these data (which are correlational) which were provided by TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation) and patients in which direct inhibition or ablation of right-hemisphere regions leads to a disruption or absence of self-face recognition. These data are consistent with a number of theories including a right-hemisphere dominance for self-awareness and/or a right-hemisphere specialization for identifying significant social relationships, including to oneself.

Neurofeedback training in major depressive disorder: A systematic review of clinical efficacy, study quality and reporting practices

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is the leading cause of disability worldwide. Neurofeedback training has been suggested as a potential additional treatment option for MDD patients not reaching remission from standard care (i.e., psychopharmacology and psychotherapy). Here we systematically reviewed neurofeedback studies employing electroencephalography, or functional magnetic resonance-based protocols in depressive patients. Of 585 initially screened studies, 24 were included in our final sample (N = 480 patients in experimental and N = 194 in the control groups completing the primary endpoint). We evaluated the clinical efficacy across studies and attempted to group studies according to the control condition categories currently used in the field that affect clinical outcomes in group comparisons. In most studies, MDD patients showed symptom improvement superior to the control group(s). However, most articles did not comply with the most stringent study quality and reporting practices. We conclude with recommendations on best practices for experimental designs and reporting standards for neurofeedback training.

The Current Evidence Levels for Biofeedback and Neurofeedback Interventions in Treating Depression: A Narrative Review

This article is aimed at showing the current level of evidence for the usage of biofeedback and neurofeedback to treat depression along with a detailed review of the studies in the field and a discussion of rationale for utilizing each protocol. La Vaque et al. criteria endorsed by the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback and International Society for Neuroregulation & Research were accepted as a means of study evaluation. Heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback was found to be moderately supportable as a treatment of MDD while outcome measure was a subjective questionnaire like Beck Depression Inventory (level 3/5, “probably efficacious”). Electroencephalographic (EEG) neurofeedback protocols, namely, alpha-theta, alpha, and sensorimotor rhythm upregulation, all qualify for level 2/5, “possibly efficacious.” Frontal alpha asymmetry protocol also received limited evidence of effect in depression (level 2/5, “possibly efficacious”). Finally, the two most influential real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (rt-fMRI) neurofeedback protocols targeting the amygdala and the frontal cortices both demonstrate some effectiveness, though lack replications (level 2/5, “possibly efficacious”). Thus, neurofeedback specifically targeting depression is moderately supported by existing studies (all fit level 2/5, “possibly efficacious”). The greatest complication preventing certain protocols from reaching higher evidence levels is a relatively high number of uncontrolled studies and an absence of accurate replications arising from the heterogeneity in protocol details, course lengths, measures of improvement, control conditions, and sample characteristics.

Emotional Dysregulation in Children and Adolescents With Psychiatric Disorders. A Narrative Review

Background: Emotional dysregulation (ED) is a transdiagnostic construct defined as the inability to regulate the intensity and quality of emotions (such as, fear, anger, sadness), in order to generate an appropriate emotional response, to handle excitability, mood instability, and emotional overreactivity, and to come down to an emotional baseline. Because ED has not been defined as a clinical entity, and because ED plays a major role in child and adolescent psychopathology, we decided to summarize current knowledge on this topic based on a narrative review of the current literature. Methods: This narrative review is based on a literature search of peer-reviewed journals. We searched the databases ERIC, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO and PSYNDEX on June 2, 2020 for peer reviewed articles published between 2000 and 2020 in English language for the preschool, school, and adolescent age (2-17 years) using the following search terms: "emotional dysregulation" OR "affect dysregulation," retrieving 943 articles. Results: The results of the literature search are presented in the following sections: the relationship between ED and psychiatric disorders (ADHD, Mood Disorders, Psychological Trauma, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Non-suicidal Self-Injury, Eating Disorders, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct Disorder, Disruptive Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder, Personality Disorders, Substance Use Disorder, Developmental Disorders, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Psychosis and Schizophrenia, and Gaming Disorder), prevention, and treatment of ED. Conclusion: Basic conditions of ED are genetic disposition, the experience of trauma, especially sexual or physical abuse, emotional neglect in childhood or adolescence, and personal stress. ED is a complex construct and a comprehensive concept, aggravating a number of various mental disorders. Differential treatment is mandatory for individual and social functioning.