Changes in working memory performance and cortical activity during acute aerobic exercise in young adults

A comparison of the acute effects of high intensity interval training and moderate intensity continuous training on working memory and emotional state in adolescent women with subthreshold depression

Objective

Various guidelines emphasize the cognitive and emotional benefits of physical activity. However, it is not yet clear what kind of exercise intensity is suitable for individuals with subthreshold depression. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effects of high intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) on the working memory and emotional state.

Methods

Forty-nine female students with subthreshold depression (mean age 16.3 ± 0.5 yrs) completed 20-min group of sit (SIT), MICT, and HIIT on separate days in a counterbalanced order. The modified n-back task was employed to evaluate working memory. Emotional state was assessed using the Feeling Scale (FS) and Felt Arousal Scale (FAS).

Results

Regarding working memory, for accuracy, SIT (82.41 ± 13.79%), MICT (81.79 ± 13.19%) and HIIT (82.06 ± 11.36%) have no significant difference (all p > 0.05). However, for reaction time, MICT (459.86 ± 131.47 ms) is significantly faster than HIIT (491.16 ± 115.68 ms) (p = 0.046), and there is no significant difference between MICT and SIT (462.71 ± 120.64 ms) (p > 0.05). Concerning emotional state, for arousal, FAS scores significantly increased after both HIIT (2.39 ± 1.30 to 3.76 ± 1.12, p < 0.001) and MICT (2.55 ± 0.88 to 3.94 ± 1.08, p < 0.001) compared to pre-exercise, and the increase caused by them was significantly higher than that of SIT (HIIT: p = 0.011; MICT: p < 0.01). For pleasure, the increase in FS score after MICT (-0.27 ± 1.13 to 1.06 ± 1.79) was significantly higher than that of SIT (0.32 ± 1.38 to 0.58 ± 1.53) (p < 0.01).

Conclusion

Acute MICT can enhance working memory and improve the emotional state of adolescent women with subthreshold depression, while HIIT may decrease working memory and pleasure in this particular population.

Enhancement of prefrontal functional connectivity under the influence of concurrent physical load during mental tasks

Backgrounds

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is widely used for the evaluation of mental workload (MWL), but it is not yet clear whether it is affected by physical factors during cognitive tasks. Therefore, the combined effects of physical and cognitive loads on hemodynamic features in the prefrontal cortex were evaluated.

Methods

Thirty-three eligible healthy male subjects were asked to perform three types of cognitive tasks (1-back, 2-back and 3-back). Concurrently, isotonic contraction aerobic exercise of the left upper limb was added. During this compound task, fNIRS signals, workload perception and task performance were recorded. Based on the oxyhemoglobin concentration, Pearson's correlation coefficient (CORR), coherence value (COH) and the phase-locking value (PLV) were calculated to reflect FC among eight channels.

Results

On the basis of effects of cognitive tasks, the concurrent physical activities would further increase National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index score (p < 0.05) and decrease task performance (p < 0.05). The fNIRS-based results showed that cognitive and physical loads had significant interaction effects on CORR (p < 0.05), COH (p < 0.05), and PLV (p = 0.010), while their main effects were not significant. The results of different channel pairs suggested that the functional connectivity between the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the bilateral orbital frontal cortex was significantly enhanced under the combined effects of high physical and high cognitive load.

Discussion

From the perspective of prefrontal functional connectivity, this study supports measurable effects of physical factor on operators' mental load. The results provide a reference for the real-time (or online) assessment of the MWL level in the natural environment.

Effects of aerobic exercise on executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The deterioration of executive function is a hallmark of cognitive aging. Reports indicate that signs of decline in executive function begin to emerge as early as middle age. Aerobic exercise improves executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults, but the optimal exercise prescription variables are still unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of aerobic exercise on executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults and explore the dose-response relationship and moderators.

METHODS

We conducted comprehensive searches of PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus for English literature, and CNKI, WanFang, and VIP for Chinese literature, covering the period from inception until April 25, 2024. Randomized controlled trials examining the effect of aerobic exercise on executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults aged 45 or older were included. The Cochrane Collaboration's RoB2 tool was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. And subgroup analyses and meta-regressions were conducted to elucidate the impact of aerobic exercise on executive function.

RESULTS

Forty-two eligible randomized controlled trials, involving a total of 2881 participants, met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review and meta-analysis. The pooled results showed that aerobic exercise had positive effects on improving cognitive flexibility (Hedge's g = 0.343, p < 0.001), working memory (Hedge's g = 0.392, p < 0.001), and inhibitory control (Hedge's g = 0.229, p < 0.001) in healthy middle-aged and older adults. However, it did not demonstrate an improvement in planning (Hedge's g = 0.094, p = 0.440). The dose-response relationships between different exercise parameters and subdomains of executive functions revealed that the largest effects on cognitive flexibility were observed after 13-24 weeks of progression-intensity mind-body exercise, 46-60 min per session, and 5-7 days per week. Regarding working memory, the largest effects were observed after 13-24 weeks of progression-intensity general aerobic exercise, 20-45 min per session, and 5-7 days per week. For inhibitory control, the greatest effects were noted after 13-24 weeks of low-intensity general aerobic exercise, 20-45 min per session, and 3-4 days per week.

CONCLUSION

Aerobic exercise can significantly improve cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control in healthy middle-aged and older adults. The effect of aerobic exercise on different aspects of executive function is influenced by specific exercise parameters, suggesting that personalized aerobic exercise programs may be more effective for enhancing executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults.

Comparative effectiveness of open and closed skill exercises on cognitive function in young adults: a fNIRS study

While it is widely acknowledged that exercise has positive effects on cognitive function, the specific impacts of different types of exercises, particularly open and closed skill exercises, on cognitive impairment continue to be a debated topic. In this study, we used fNIRS and cognitive psychology tasks to investigate the effects of different types of exercises on cognitive function and brain activity in young adults. We conducted an observational study to assess the cognitive function of participants who had engaged in these exercises for a long period. Additionally, we examined the effects of open skill exercise (badminton) and closed skill exercise (calisthenics) on localized blood flow in the prefrontal lobe of the brain using an experimental research method. Specifically, during the Stroop task, the badminton group exhibited significantly higher △HbO2 in channel 18, corresponding to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, compared to the calisthenics group (F = 4.485, P < 0.05, η2 = 0.074). In the 2-back task, the calisthenics group showed significantly higher △HbO2 in channel 17, corresponding to the frontopolar area, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and inferior prefrontal gyrus, than the badminton group (F = 8.842, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.136). Our findings reveal that open skill exercises are more effective in enhancing cognitive inhibition, thereby increasing attention capacity, self-regulation, and flexibility in response to environmental changes. Conversely, closed skill exercises demonstrate greater efficacy in improving working memory within cognitive functions, showcasing an enhanced capacity for information processing and storage. These data indicate that while both open and closed skill exercises are beneficial for cognitive function, they exhibit significant distinctions in some aspects.

A systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis provide evidence for an effect of acute physical activity on cognition in young adults

Physical exercise is a potential intervention for enhancing cognitive function across the lifespan. However, while studies employing long-term exercise interventions consistently show positive effects on cognition, studies using single acute bouts have produced mixed results. Here, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to determine the impact of acute exercise on cognitive task performance in healthy young adults. A Bayesian hierarchical model quantified probabilistic evidence for a modulatory relationship by synthesizing 651 effect sizes from 113 studies from PsychInfo and Google Scholar representing 4,390 participants. Publication bias was mitigated using the trim-and-fill method. Acute exercise was found to have a small beneficial effect on cognition (g = 0.13 ± 0.04; BF = 3.67) and decrease reaction time. A meta-analysis restricted to executive function tasks revealed improvements in working memory and inhibition. Meta-analytic estimates were consistent across multiple priors and likelihood functions. Physical activities were categorized based on exercise type (e.g., cycling) because many activities have aerobic and anaerobic components, but this approach may limit comparison to studies that categorize activities based on metabolic demands. The current study provides an updated synthesis of the existing literature and insights into the robustness of acute exercise-induced effects on cognition. Funding provided by the United States Army Research Office.

Acute combined effects of concurrent physical activities on autonomic nervous activation during cognitive tasks

Backgrounds: The validity of heart rate variability (HRV) has been substantiated in mental workload assessments. However, cognitive tasks often coincide with physical exertion in practical mental work, but their synergic effects on HRV remains insufficiently established. The study aims were to investigate the combined effects of cognitive and physical load on autonomic nerve functions. Methods: Thirty-five healthy male subjects (aged 23.5 ± 3.3 years) were eligible and enrolled in the study. The subjects engaged in n-back cognitive tasks (1-back, 2-back, and 3-back) under three distinct physical conditions, involving isotonic contraction of the left upper limb with loads of 0 kg, 3 kg, and 5 kg. Electrocardiogram signals and cognitive task performance were recorded throughout the tasks, and post-task assessment of subjective experiences were conducted using the NASA-TLX scale. Results: The execution of n-back tasks resulted in enhanced perceptions of task-load feelings and increased reaction times among subjects, accompanied by a decline in the accuracy rate (p < 0.05). These effects were synchronously intensified by the imposition of physical load. Comparative analysis with a no-physical-load scenario revealed significant alterations in the HRV of the subjects during the cognitive task under moderate and high physical conditions. The main features were a decreased power of the high frequency component (p < 0.05) and an increased low frequency component (p < 0.05), signifying an elevation in sympathetic activity. This physiological response manifested similarly at both moderate and high physical levels. In addition, a discernible linear correlation was observed between HRV and task-load feelings, as well as task performance under the influence of physical load (p < 0.05). Conclusion: HRV can serve as a viable indicator for assessing mental workload in the context of physical activities, making it suitable for real-world mental work scenarios.

Runners with better cardiorespiratory fitness had higher prefrontal cortex activity during both single and exercise-executive function dual tasks: an fNIRS study

Objective: This study investigated the relationship between executive function and prefrontal cortex oxygenation during exercise in young adults with different Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) levels. Methods: A total of 28 amateur runners (n = 14) and sedentary college students (n = 14) were recruited. The maximum oxygen uptake estimated for the sub-maximal intensity run (4.97 miles/h) was used to indicate the different CRF levels. After 1 week, participants must complete the Stroop and 2-Back tasks in silence while performing moderate-intensity exercise. Using 19-channel functional near-infrared spectroscopic (fNIRS) to examine changes in prefrontal cortex oxyhemoglobin. Results: There was no significant difference in the correctness of the Stroop and 2-Back tasks between the two groups during exercise, but the amateur runner group showed an acceleration in reaction time. fNIRS results showed that during the exercise 2-Back task, the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex oxyhemoglobin was higher in the amateur runner group than in the sedentary group. Conclusion: Executive function during exercise was similarly improved in participants with better fitness, suggesting that CRF provides an excellent metabolic reserve and directed allocation for cognitive tasks during exercise.

Maintaining her image: A social comparative evaluation of the particularity of mothers in the Chinese cultural context

In Chinese culture, the mother holds a special meaning in one's self-concept, and is perceived as being stablyincorporated into and consistent with the self. However, it is unclear whether the evaluation of mothers by individuals is affected following the initiation of upward and downward social comparisons (USC and DSC). This experiment manipulated USC and DSC by evaluating positive and negative public figures and used functional near-infrared spectroscopy to record changes in brain activity during the evaluation. It was found that participants' evaluations of their mothers and their brain activity did not differ from the self during USC, verifying the equivalence of the mother and the self. In DSC, participants made significantly more positive social judgments about their mothers, accompanied by greater activation of the left temporal lobe. These results suggest that the mother was not only stably incorporated into the self but was in a position of even greater importance than the self. In DSC in particular, individuals are more likely to maintain a positive image of their mother.