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Zarini D, Pasbakhsh P, Mojaverrostami S, Amirizadeh S, Hashemi M, Shabani M, Noshadian M, Kashani IR. Microglia/macrophage polarization regulates spontaneous remyelination in intermittent cuprizone model of demyelination. Biochem Biophys Rep 2024; 37:101630. [PMID: 38234370 PMCID: PMC10793082 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2023.101630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) lesions can repeatedly be de-and remyelinated during demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Here, we designed an intermittent demyelination model by 0.3 % Cuprizone feeding in C57/BL6 mice followed by two weeks recovery. Histochemical staining of luxol fast blue (LFB) was used for study of remyelination, detection of glial and endothelial cells was performed by immunohistochemistry staining for the following antibodies: anti Olig2 for oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, anti APC for mature oligodendrocytes, anti GFAP for astrocytes, and anti Iba-1 for microglia/macrophages, anti iNOS for M1 microglia/macrophage phenotype, anti TREM-2 for M2 microglia/macrophage phenotype and anti CD31 for endothelial cells. Also, real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed for assessment of the expression of the targeted genes. LFB staining results showed enhanced remyelination in the intermittent cuprizone (INTRCPZ) group, which was accompanied by improved motor function, increased mature oligodendrocyte cells, and reduction of astrogliosis and microgliosis. Moreover, switching from M1 to M2 polarity increased in the INTRCPZ group that was in association with downregulation of pro-inflammatory and upregulation of anti-inflammatory genes. Finally, evaluation of microvascular changes revealed a remarkable decrease in the endothelial cells in the cuprizone (CPZ) group which recovered in the INTERCPZ group. The outcomes demonstrate enhanced myelin content during recovery in the intermittent demyelination model which is in association with reshaping macrophage polarity and modification of glial and endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davood Zarini
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parichehr Pasbakhsh
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sina Mojaverrostami
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shiva Amirizadeh
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maedeh Hashemi
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Shabani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehrazin Noshadian
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Iraj Ragerdi Kashani
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Smiley CE, Pate BS, Bouknight SJ, Harrington EN, Jasnow AM, Wood SK. The role of locus coeruleus neuroimmune signaling in the response to social stress in female rats. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.10.575076. [PMID: 38260568 PMCID: PMC10802589 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.10.575076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric disorders that result from stress exposure, including post-traumatic stress disorder and substance abuse, are highly associated with central inflammation. Our previous work established that females selectively exhibit increased proinflammatory cytokine release within the noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC) in response to witnessing social stress, which was associated with a hypervigilant phenotype. Thus, neuroimmune activation in the LC may be responsible for the heightened risk of developing mental health disorders following stress in females. Further, ablation of microglia using pharmacological techniques reduces the hypervigilant behavioral response exhibited by females during social stress. Therefore, these studies were designed to further investigate the impact of stress-induced neuroimmune signaling on the long-term behavioral and neuronal consequences of social stress exposure in females using DREADDs. We first characterized the use of an AAV-CD68-Gi-DREADD virus targeted to microglia within the LC. While the use of AAVs in preclinical research has been limited by observations regarding poor transfection efficiency in mice, recent data suggest that species specific differences in microglial genetics may render rats more receptive to chemogenetic targeting of microglia using a CD68 promoter. Therefore, clozapine-n-oxide (CNO) was used to activate the microglial expressed hM4Di to inhibit microglial activity during acute exposure to vicarious social defeat (witness stress, WS) in female rats. Neuroimmune activity within the LC, quantified by microglial morphology and cytokine release, was augmented by WS and prevented by chemogenetic microglial inhibition. Following confirmation of DREADD selectivity and efficacy, we utilized this technique to inhibit microglial activity during repeated WS. Subsequently, rats were tested in a marble burying paradigm and exposed to the WS cues and context to measure hypervigilant behaviors. Chemogenetic-mediated inhibition of microglial activity prior to each WS exposure prevented both acute and long-term hypervigilant responses induced by WS across multiple behavioral paradigms. Further, a history of microglial inactivation during WS prevented the heightened LC activity typically observed in response to stress cues. These studies are among the first to use a chemogenetic approach to inhibit microglia within the female brain in vivo and establish LC inflammation as a key mechanism underlying the behavioral and neuronal responses to social stress in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cora E. Smiley
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
- WJB Dorn Veterans Administration Medical Center, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Brittany S. Pate
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
- University of South Carolina, Department of Exercise Science, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Samantha J. Bouknight
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Evelynn N. Harrington
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
- WJB Dorn Veterans Administration Medical Center, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Aaron M. Jasnow
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Susan K. Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
- WJB Dorn Veterans Administration Medical Center, Columbia, SC 29209
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Navarro-Pérez M, Capera J, Benavente-Garcia A, Cassinelli S, Colomer-Molera M, Felipe A. Kv1.3 in the spotlight for treating immune diseases. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2024; 28:67-82. [PMID: 38316438 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2024.2315021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kv1.3 is the main voltage-gated potassium channel of leukocytes from both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Channel function is required for common processes such as Ca2+ signaling but also for cell-specific events. In this context, alterations in Kv1.3 are associated with multiple immune disorders. Excessive channel activity correlates with numerous autoimmune diseases, while reduced currents result in increased cancer prevalence and immunodeficiencies. AREAS COVERED This review offers a general view of the role of Kv1.3 in every type of leukocyte. Moreover, diseases stemming from dysregulations of the channel are detailed, as well as current advances in their therapeutic research. EXPERT OPINION Kv1.3 arises as a potential immune target in a variety of diseases. Several lines of research focused on channel modulation have yielded positive results. However, among the great variety of specific channel blockers, only one has reached clinical trials. Future investigations should focus on developing simpler administration routes for channel inhibitors to facilitate their entrance into clinical trials. Prospective Kv1.3-based treatments will ensure powerful therapies while minimizing undesired side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Navarro-Pérez
- Molecular Physiology Laboratory, Departament de Bioquímica i Biomedicina Molecular, Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jesusa Capera
- Molecular Physiology Laboratory, Departament de Bioquímica i Biomedicina Molecular, Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics Rheumatology & Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Anna Benavente-Garcia
- Molecular Physiology Laboratory, Departament de Bioquímica i Biomedicina Molecular, Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Silvia Cassinelli
- Molecular Physiology Laboratory, Departament de Bioquímica i Biomedicina Molecular, Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magalí Colomer-Molera
- Molecular Physiology Laboratory, Departament de Bioquímica i Biomedicina Molecular, Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonio Felipe
- Molecular Physiology Laboratory, Departament de Bioquímica i Biomedicina Molecular, Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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The promise of the TGF-β superfamily as a therapeutic target for Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 171:105805. [PMID: 35764291 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A large body of evidence underscore the regulatory role of TGF-β superfamily in the central nervous system. Components of the TGF-β superfamily modulate key events during embryonic brain development and adult brain tissue injury repair. With respect to Parkinson's disease (PD), TGF-ß signaling pathways are implicated in the differentiation, maintenance and synaptic function of the dopaminergic neurons, as well as in processes related to the activation state of astrocytes and microglia. In vitro and in vivo studies using toxin models, have interrogated on the dopaminotrophic and protective role of the TGF-β superfamily members. The evolution of genetic and animal models of PD that more closely recapitulate the disease condition has made possible the dissection of intracellular pathways in response to TGF-ß treatment. Although the first clinical trials using GDNF did not meet their primary endpoints, substantial work has been carried out to reappraise the TGF-β superfamily's clinical benefit.
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Więckowska-Gacek A, Mietelska-Porowska A, Wydrych M, Wojda U. Western diet as a trigger of Alzheimer's disease: From metabolic syndrome and systemic inflammation to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Ageing Res Rev 2021; 70:101397. [PMID: 34214643 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2021.101397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
An excess of saturated fatty acids and simple sugars in the diet is a known environmental risk factor of Alzheimer's disease (AD) but the holistic view of the interacting processes through which such diet may contribute to AD pathogenesis is missing. We addressed this need through extensive analysis of published studies investigating the effects of western diet (WD) on AD development in humans and laboratory animals. We reviewed WD-induced systemic alterations comprising metabolic changes, induction of obesity and adipose tissue inflammation, gut microbiota dysbiosis and acceleration of systemic low-grade inflammation. Next we provide an overview of the evidence demonstrating that WD-associated systemic alterations drive impairment of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and development of neuroinflammation paralleled by accumulation of toxic amyloid. Later these changes are followed by dysfunction of synaptic transmission, neurodegeneration and finally memory and cognitive impairment. We conclude that WD can trigger AD by acceleration of inflammaging, and that BBB impairment induced by metabolic and systemic inflammation play the central role in this process. Moreover, the concurrence of neuroinflammation and Aβ dyshomeostasis, which by reciprocal interactions drive the vicious cycle of neurodegeneration, contradicts Aβ as the primary trigger of AD. Given that in 2019 the World Health Organization recommended focusing on modifiable risk factors in AD prevention, this overview of the sequential, complex pathomechanisms initiated by WD, which can lead from peripheral disturbances to neurodegeneration, can support future prevention strategies.
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Ohgomori T, Iinuma K, Yamada J, Jinno S. A unique subtype of ramified microglia associated with synapses in the rat hippocampus. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:4740-4754. [PMID: 34110047 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
To date, a number of studies have reported the heterogeneity of activated microglia. However, there is increasing evidence suggests that ramified, so-called resting, microglia may also be heterogeneous, and they may play diverse roles in normal brain homeostasis. Here, we found that both 5D4 keratan sulfate epitope-positive (5D4+ ) and 5D4-negative (5D4- ) microglia coexisted in the hippocampus of normal rats, while all microglia were negative for the 5D4 epitope in the hippocampus of normal mice. We thus aimed to determine the potential heterogeneity of microglia related to the 5D4 epitope in the normal rat hippocampus. The optical disector analysis showed that the densities of 5D4+ microglia were higher in the stratum oriens of the CA3 region than in other layers and regions. Although both 5D4+ and 5D4- microglia exhibited a ramified morphology, the three-dimensional reconstruction analysis showed that the node numbers, end numbers, and complexity of processes were higher in 5D4+ than in 5D4- microglia. The linear discriminant analysis showed that 5D4+ and 5D4- microglia can be classified into distinct morphometric subtypes. The ratios of contact between synaptic boutons and microglial processes were higher in 5D4+ than in 5D4- microglia. The gene expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β and purinergic receptor P2Y12 (P2Y12 R) were higher in 5D4+ than in 5D4- microglia. Together, these results indicate that at least two different subtypes of ramified microglia coexist in the normal rat hippocampus and also suggest that 5D4+ microglia may represent a unique subtype associated with synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Ohgomori
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.,Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Kaizuka, Japan
| | - Kyoko Iinuma
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Jun Yamada
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shozo Jinno
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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7
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Hume DA, Caruso M, Keshvari S, Patkar OL, Sehgal A, Bush SJ, Summers KM, Pridans C, Irvine KM. The Mononuclear Phagocyte System of the Rat. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 206:2251-2263. [PMID: 33965905 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2100136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The laboratory rat continues to be the model of choice for many studies of physiology, behavior, and complex human diseases. Cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS; monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells) are abundant residents in every tissue in the body and regulate postnatal development, homeostasis, and innate and acquired immunity. Recruitment and proliferation of MPS cells is an essential component of both initiation and resolution of inflammation. The large majority of current knowledge of MPS biology is derived from studies of inbred mice, but advances in technology and resources have eliminated many of the advantages of the mouse as a model. In this article, we review the tools available and the current state of knowledge of development, homeostasis, regulation, and diversity within the MPS of the rat.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Hume
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Melanie Caruso
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sahar Keshvari
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Omkar L Patkar
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Anuj Sehgal
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephen J Bush
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Kim M Summers
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Clare Pridans
- Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Katharine M Irvine
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Davis J, Mire E. Maternal obesity and developmental programming of neuropsychiatric disorders: An inflammatory hypothesis. Brain Neurosci Adv 2021; 5:23982128211003484. [PMID: 33889757 PMCID: PMC8040564 DOI: 10.1177/23982128211003484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal obesity is associated with the development of a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders; however, the mechanisms behind this association are not fully understood. Comparison between maternal immune activation and maternal obesity reveals similarities in associated impairments and maternal cytokine profile. Here, we present a summary of recent evidence describing how inflammatory processes contribute towards the development of neuropsychiatric disorders in the offspring of obese mothers. This includes discussion on how maternal cytokine levels, fatty acids and placental inflammation may interact with foetal neurodevelopment through changes to microglial behaviour and epigenetic modification. We also propose an exosome-mediated mechanism for the disruption of brain development under maternal obesity and discuss potential intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Davis
- Hodge Centre for Neuropsychiatric Immunology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Erik Mire
- Hodge Centre for Neuropsychiatric Immunology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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9
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Dukay B, Walter FR, Vigh JP, Barabási B, Hajdu P, Balassa T, Migh E, Kincses A, Hoyk Z, Szögi T, Borbély E, Csoboz B, Horváth P, Fülöp L, Penke B, Vígh L, Deli MA, Sántha M, Tóth ME. Neuroinflammatory processes are augmented in mice overexpressing human heat-shock protein B1 following ethanol-induced brain injury. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:22. [PMID: 33423680 PMCID: PMC7798334 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02070-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Heat-shock protein B1 (HSPB1) is among the most well-known and versatile member of the evolutionarily conserved family of small heat-shock proteins. It has been implicated to serve a neuroprotective role against various neurological disorders via its modulatory activity on inflammation, yet its exact role in neuroinflammation is poorly understood. In order to shed light on the exact mechanism of inflammation modulation by HSPB1, we investigated the effect of HSPB1 on neuroinflammatory processes in an in vivo and in vitro model of acute brain injury. Methods In this study, we used a transgenic mouse strain overexpressing the human HSPB1 protein. In the in vivo experiments, 7-day-old transgenic and wild-type mice were treated with ethanol. Apoptotic cells were detected using TUNEL assay. The mRNA and protein levels of cytokines and glial cell markers were examined using RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry in the brain. We also established primary neuronal, astrocyte, and microglial cultures which were subjected to cytokine and ethanol treatments. TNFα and hHSPB1 levels were measured from the supernates by ELISA, and intracellular hHSPB1 expression was analyzed using fluorescent immunohistochemistry. Results Following ethanol treatment, the brains of hHSPB1-overexpressing mice showed a significantly higher mRNA level of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Tnf, Il1b), microglia (Cd68, Arg1), and astrocyte (Gfap) markers compared to wild-type brains. Microglial activation, and 1 week later, reactive astrogliosis was higher in certain brain areas of ethanol-treated transgenic mice compared to those of wild-types. Despite the remarkably high expression of pro-apoptotic Tnf, hHSPB1-overexpressing mice did not exhibit higher level of apoptosis. Our data suggest that intracellular hHSPB1, showing the highest level in primary astrocytes, was responsible for the inflammation-regulating effects. Microglia cells were the main source of TNFα in our model. Microglia isolated from hHSPB1-overexpressing mice showed a significantly higher release of TNFα compared to wild-type cells under inflammatory conditions. Conclusions Our work provides novel in vivo evidence that hHSPB1 overexpression has a regulating effect on acute neuroinflammation by intensifying the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enhancing glial cell activation, but not increasing neuronal apoptosis. These results suggest that hHSPB1 may play a complex role in the modulation of the ethanol-induced neuroinflammatory response. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-020-02070-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigitta Dukay
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary. .,Doctoral School in Biology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Fruzsina R Walter
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Judit P Vigh
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Beáta Barabási
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Szeged, Hungary.,Doctoral School in Theoretical Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Petra Hajdu
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary
| | - Tamás Balassa
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary.,Doctoral School of Informatics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ede Migh
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary
| | - András Kincses
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zsófia Hoyk
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Titanilla Szögi
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Emőke Borbély
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Bálint Csoboz
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary.,Institute of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Péter Horváth
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary.,Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lívia Fülöp
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Botond Penke
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Vígh
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary
| | - Mária A Deli
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Miklós Sántha
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary
| | - Melinda E Tóth
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged, H-6726, Hungary.
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Kandasamy M, Anusuyadevi M, Aigner KM, Unger MS, Kniewallner KM, de Sousa DMB, Altendorfer B, Mrowetz H, Bogdahn U, Aigner L. TGF-β Signaling: A Therapeutic Target to Reinstate Regenerative Plasticity in Vascular Dementia? Aging Dis 2020; 11:828-850. [PMID: 32765949 PMCID: PMC7390515 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2020.0222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular dementia (VaD) is the second leading form of memory loss after Alzheimer's disease (AD). Currently, there is no cure available. The etiology, pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of VaD are extremely heterogeneous, but the impaired cerebral blood flow (CBF) represents a common denominator of VaD. The latter might be the result of atherosclerosis, amyloid angiopathy, microbleeding and micro-strokes, together causing blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and vessel leakage, collectively originating from the consequence of hypertension, one of the main risk factors for VaD. At the histopathological level, VaD displays abnormal vascular remodeling, endothelial cell death, string vessel formation, pericyte responses, fibrosis, astrogliosis, sclerosis, microglia activation, neuroinflammation, demyelination, white matter lesions, deprivation of synapses and neuronal loss. The transforming growth factor (TGF) β has been identified as one of the key molecular factors involved in the aforementioned various pathological aspects. Thus, targeting TGF-β signaling in the brain might be a promising therapeutic strategy to mitigate vascular pathology and improve cognitive functions in patients with VaD. This review revisits the recent understanding of the role of TGF-β in VaD and associated pathological hallmarks. It further explores the potential to modulate certain aspects of VaD pathology by targeting TGF-β signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Kandasamy
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Department of Animal Science, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
- Faculty Recharge Programme, University Grants Commission (UGC-FRP), New Delhi, India.
| | - Muthuswamy Anusuyadevi
- Molecular Gerontology Group, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidhasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Kiera M Aigner
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University.
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Michael S Unger
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University.
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Kathrin M Kniewallner
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University.
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Diana M Bessa de Sousa
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University.
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Barbara Altendorfer
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University.
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Heike Mrowetz
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University.
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Ulrich Bogdahn
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University.
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
- Velvio GmbH, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Ludwig Aigner
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University.
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
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Mecha M, Yanguas-Casás N, Feliú A, Mestre L, Carrillo-Salinas FJ, Riecken K, Gomez-Nicola D, Guaza C. Involvement of Wnt7a in the role of M2c microglia in neural stem cell oligodendrogenesis. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:88. [PMID: 32192522 PMCID: PMC7081569 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01734-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The participation of microglia in CNS development and homeostasis indicate that these cells are pivotal for the regeneration that occurs after demyelination. The clearance of myelin debris and the inflammatory-dependent activation of local oligodendrocyte progenitor cells in a demyelinated lesion is dependent on the activation of M2c microglia, which display both phagocytic and healing functions. Emerging interest has been raised about the role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in oligodendrogenesis and myelination. Besides, cytokines and growth factors released by microglia can control the survival, proliferation, migration, and differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs), contributing to remyelination through the oligodendrocyte specification of this adult neurogenic niche. Methods TMEV-IDD model was used to study the contribution of dorsal SVZ stem cells to newly born oligodendrocytes in the corpus callosum following demyelination by (i) en-face dorsal SVZ preparations; (ii) immunohistochemistry; and (iii) cellular tracking. By RT-PCR, we analyzed the expression of Wnt proteins in demyelinated and remyelinating corpus callosum. Using in vitro approaches with microglia cultures and embryonic NSCs, we studied the role of purified myelin, Wnt proteins, and polarized microglia-conditioned medium to NSC proliferation and differentiation. One-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s post-hoc test, or a Student’s t test were used to establish statistical significance. Results The demyelination caused by TMEV infection is paralleled by an increase in B1 cells and pinwheels in the dorsal SVZ, resulting in the mobilization of SVZ proliferative progenitors and their differentiation into mature oligodendrocytes. Demyelination decreased the gene expression of Wnt5a and Wnt7a, which was restored during remyelination. In vitro approaches show that Wnt3a enhances NSC proliferation, while Wnt7a and myelin debris promotes oligodendrogenesis from NSCs. As phagocytic M2c microglia secrete Wnt 7a, their conditioned media was found to induce Wnt/β-Catenin signaling in NSCs promoting an oligodendroglial fate. Conclusions We define here the contribution of microglia to Wnt production depending on their activation state, with M1 microglia secreting the Wnt5a protein and M2c microglia secreting Wnt7a. Collectively, our data reveal the role of reparative microglia in NSC oligodendrogenesis with the involvement of Wnt7a.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Mecha
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Natalia Yanguas-Casás
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain.,Present address: Grupo de Investigación en Linfomas, Instituto Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro-Segovia de Arana (IDIPHISA), Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Feliú
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Leyre Mestre
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Kristoffer Riecken
- Research Department Cell and Gene Therapy, Clinic for Stem Cell Transplantation, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Diego Gomez-Nicola
- Centre for Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Carmen Guaza
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain.
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12
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Bai Q, Xue M, Yong VW. Microglia and macrophage phenotypes in intracerebral haemorrhage injury: therapeutic opportunities. Brain 2020; 143:1297-1314. [PMID: 31919518 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awz393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The prognosis of intracerebral haemorrhage continues to be devastating despite much research into this condition. A prominent feature of intracerebral haemorrhage is neuroinflammation, particularly the excessive representation of pro-inflammatory CNS-intrinsic microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages that infiltrate from the circulation. The pro-inflammatory microglia/macrophages produce injury-enhancing factors, including inflammatory cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases and reactive oxygen species. Conversely, the regulatory microglia/macrophages with potential reparative and anti-inflammatory roles are outcompeted in the early stages after intracerebral haemorrhage, and their beneficial roles appear to be overwhelmed by pro-inflammatory microglia/macrophages. In this review, we describe the activation of microglia/macrophages following intracerebral haemorrhage in animal models and clinical subjects, and consider their multiple mechanisms of cellular injury after haemorrhage. We review strategies and medications aimed at suppressing the pro-inflammatory activities of microglia/macrophages, and those directed at elevating the regulatory properties of these myeloid cells after intracerebral haemorrhage. We consider the translational potential of these medications from preclinical models to clinical use after intracerebral haemorrhage injury, and suggest that several approaches still lack the experimental support necessary for use in humans. Nonetheless, the preclinical data support the use of deactivator or inhibitor of pro-inflammatory microglia/macrophages, whilst enhancing the regulatory phenotype, as part of the therapeutic approach to improve the prognosis of intracerebral haemorrhage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Bai
- Department of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Henan Medical Key Laboratory of Translational Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Mengzhou Xue
- Department of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Henan Medical Key Laboratory of Translational Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - V Wee Yong
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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13
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Laffer B, Bauer D, Wasmuth S, Busch M, Jalilvand TV, Thanos S, Meyer Zu Hörste G, Loser K, Langmann T, Heiligenhaus A, Kasper M. Loss of IL-10 Promotes Differentiation of Microglia to a M1 Phenotype. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:430. [PMID: 31649508 PMCID: PMC6794388 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia represent the primary resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS) and modulate local immune responses. Depending on their physiological functions, microglia can be classified into pro- (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype. Interleukin (IL)-10 is an important modulator of neuronal homeostasis, with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective functions, and can be released by microglia. Here, we investigated how IL-10 deficiency affected the M1/2 polarization of primary microglia upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation in vitro. Microglia phenotypes were analyzed via flow cytometry. Cytokine and chemokine secretion were examined by ELISA and bead-based multiplex LEGENDplexTM. Our results showed that genetic depletion of IL-10 led to elevated M1 like phenotype (CD86+ CD206−) under pro-inflammatory conditions associated with increased frequency of IL-6+, TNF-α+ cells and enhanced release of several pro-inflammatory chemokines. Absence of IL-10 led to an attenuated M2 like phenotype (CD86− CD206+) and a reduced secretion of TGF-β1 upon LPS stimulation. In conclusion, IL-10 deficiency may promote the polarization of microglia into M1-prone phenotype under pro-inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Laffer
- Department of Ophthalmology and Ophtha-Lab at St. Franziskus-Hospital, Münster, Germany.,Department of Ophthalmology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Dirk Bauer
- Department of Ophthalmology and Ophtha-Lab at St. Franziskus-Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | - Susanne Wasmuth
- Department of Ophthalmology and Ophtha-Lab at St. Franziskus-Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Busch
- Department of Ophthalmology and Ophtha-Lab at St. Franziskus-Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | - Tida Viola Jalilvand
- Department of Ophthalmology and Ophtha-Lab at St. Franziskus-Hospital, Münster, Germany.,Department of Experimental Ophthalmology, Westphalian Wilhelms University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Solon Thanos
- Department of Experimental Ophthalmology, Westphalian Wilhelms University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Gerd Meyer Zu Hörste
- Department of Neurology with Institute of Translational Neurology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Karin Loser
- Department of Dermatology - Experimental Dermatology and Immunobiology of the Skin, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Thomas Langmann
- Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Arnd Heiligenhaus
- Department of Ophthalmology and Ophtha-Lab at St. Franziskus-Hospital, Münster, Germany.,University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Maren Kasper
- Department of Ophthalmology and Ophtha-Lab at St. Franziskus-Hospital, Münster, Germany
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14
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McMillin M, Grant S, Frampton G, Petrescu AD, Williams E, Jefferson B, Thomas A, Brahmaroutu A, DeMorrow S. Elevated circulating TGFβ1 during acute liver failure activates TGFβR2 on cortical neurons and exacerbates neuroinflammation and hepatic encephalopathy in mice. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:69. [PMID: 30940161 PMCID: PMC6446280 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1455-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute liver failure resulting from drug-induced liver injury can lead to the development of neurological complications called hepatic encephalopathy (HE). Hepatic transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1) is upregulated due to liver failure in mice and inhibiting circulating TGFβ reduced HE progression. However, the specific contributions of TGFβ1 on brain cell populations and neuroinflammation during HE are not known. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize hepatic and brain TGFβ1 signaling during acute liver failure and its contribution to HE progression using a combination of pharmacological and genetic approaches. METHODS C57Bl/6 or neuron-specific transforming growth factor beta receptor 2 (TGFβR2) null mice (TGFβR2ΔNeu) were treated with azoxymethane (AOM) to induce acute liver failure and HE. The activity of circulating TGFβ1 was inhibited in C57Bl/6 mice via injection of a neutralizing antibody against TGFβ1 (anti-TGFβ1) prior to AOM injection. In all mouse treatment groups, liver damage, neuroinflammation, and neurological deficits were assessed. Inflammatory signaling between neurons and microglia were investigated in in vitro studies through the use of pharmacological inhibitors of TGFβ1 signaling in HT-22 and EOC-20 cells. RESULTS TGFβ1 was expressed and upregulated in the liver following AOM injection. Pharmacological inhibition of TGFβ1 after AOM injection attenuated neurological decline, microglia activation, and neuroinflammation with no significant changes in liver damage. TGFβR2ΔNeu mice administered AOM showed no effect on liver pathology but significantly reduced neurological decline compared to control mice. Microglia activation and neuroinflammation were attenuated in mice with pharmacological inhibition of TGFβ1 or in TGFβR2ΔNeu mice. TGFβ1 increased chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and decreased C-X3-C motif ligand 1 (CX3CL1) expression in HT-22 cells and reduced interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß) expression, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) expression, and phagocytosis activity in EOC-20 cells. CONCLUSION Increased circulating TGFβ1 following acute liver failure results in activation of neuronal TGFβR2 signaling, driving neuroinflammation and neurological decline during AOM-induced HE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew McMillin
- Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA.,Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA.,Department of Internal Medicine, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Stephanie Grant
- Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA.,Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA.,Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Gabriel Frampton
- Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA.,Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA.,Department of Internal Medicine, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Anca D Petrescu
- Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA.,Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA.,Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Elaina Williams
- Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA.,Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA.,Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Brandi Jefferson
- Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA.,Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Alison Thomas
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Ankita Brahmaroutu
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Sharon DeMorrow
- Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA. .,Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA. .,Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA. .,Department of Internal Medicine, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
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15
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Lively S, Wong R, Lam D, Schlichter LC. Sex- and Development-Dependent Responses of Rat Microglia to Pro- and Anti-inflammatory Stimulation. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:433. [PMID: 30524242 PMCID: PMC6262307 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Addressing potential sex differences in pre-clinical studies is crucial for developing therapeutic interventions. Although sex differences have been reported in epidemiological studies and from clinical experience, most pre-clinical studies of neuroinflammation use male rodents; however, sexual dimorphisms in microglia might affect the CNS inflammatory response. Developmental changes are also important and, in rodents, there is a critical period of sexual brain differentiation in the first 3 weeks after birth. We compared rat microglia from sex-segregated neonates (P1) and at about the time of weaning (P21). To study transitions from a basal homeostatic state (untreated), microglia were subjected to a pro-inflammatory (IFNγ + TNFα) or anti-inflammatory (IL-4) stimulus. Responses were compared by quantifying changes in nitric oxide production, migration, and expression of nearly 70 genes, including inflammatory mediators and receptors, inflammasome molecules, immune modulators, and genes that regulate microglial physiological functions. No sex differences were seen in transcriptional responses in either age group but the IL-4-evoked migration increase was larger in male cells at both ages. Protein changes for the hallmark molecules, NOS2, COX-2, PYK2 and CD206 correlated with mRNA changes. P1 and P21 microglia showed substantial differences, including expression of genes related to developmental roles. That is, P21 microglia had a more mature phenotype, with higher basal and stimulated levels of many inflammatory genes, while P1 cells had higher expression of phagocytosis-related molecules. Nevertheless, cells of both ages responded to IL-4 and IFNγ + TNFα. We examined the Kv1.3 potassium channel (a potential target for modulating neuroinflammation) and the Kir2.1 channel, which regulate several microglia functions. Kv1.3 mRNA (Kcna3) was higher at P21 under all conditions and male P21 cells had higher mRNA and Kv currents in response to IFNγ + TNFα. Overall, numerous transcriptional and functional responses of microglia changed during the first 3 weeks after birth but few sex-dependent changes were seen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Starlee Lively
- Division of Genetics & Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Raymond Wong
- Division of Genetics & Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Doris Lam
- Division of Genetics & Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lyanne C Schlichter
- Division of Genetics & Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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16
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Lively S, Schlichter LC. Microglia Responses to Pro-inflammatory Stimuli (LPS, IFNγ+TNFα) and Reprogramming by Resolving Cytokines (IL-4, IL-10). Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:215. [PMID: 30087595 PMCID: PMC6066613 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia respond to CNS injuries and diseases with complex reactions, often called "activation." A pro-inflammatory phenotype (also called classical or M1 activation) lies at one extreme of the reactivity spectrum. There were several motivations for this study. First, bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) is the most commonly used pro-inflammatory stimulus for microglia, both in vitro and in vivo; however, pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IFNγ, TNFα) rather than LPS will be encountered with sterile CNS damage and disease. We lack direct comparisons of responses between LPS and such cytokines. Second, while transcriptional profiling is providing substantial data on microglial responses to LPS, these studies mainly use mouse cells and models, and there is increasing evidence that responses of rat microglia can differ. Third, the cytokine milieu is dynamic after acute CNS damage, and an important question in microglial biology is: How malleable are their responses? There are very few studies of effects of resolving cytokines, particularly for rat microglia, and much of the work has focused on pro-inflammatory outcomes. Here, we first exposed primary rat microglia to LPS or to IFNγ+TNFα (I+T) and compared hallmark functional (nitric oxide production, migration) and molecular responses (almost 100 genes), including surface receptors that can be considered part of the sensome. Protein changes for exemplary molecules were also quantified: ARG1, CD206/MRC1, COX-2, iNOS, and PYK2. Despite some similarities, there were notable differences in responses to LPS and I+T. For instance, LPS often evoked higher pro-inflammatory gene expression and also increased several anti-inflammatory genes. Second, we compared the ability of two anti-inflammatory, resolving cytokines (IL-4, IL-10), to counteract responses to LPS and I+T. IL-4 was more effective after I+T than after LPS, and IL-10 was surprisingly ineffective after either stimulus. These results should prove useful in modeling microglial reactivity in vitro; and comparing transcriptional responses to sterile CNS inflammation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Starlee Lively
- Division of Genetics & Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lyanne C Schlichter
- Division of Genetics & Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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