The management of orthostatic hypotension in Parkinson's disease

Levodopa: From Biological Significance to Continuous Monitoring

A continuous levodopa sensor can improve the quality of life for patients suffering with Parkinson's disease by enhancing levodopa titration and treatment effectiveness; however, its development is currently hindered by the absence of a specific levodopa molecular recognition element and limited insights into how real-time monitoring might affect clinical outcomes. This gap in research contributes to clinician uncertainty regarding the practical value of continuous levodopa monitoring data. This paper examines the current state of levodopa sensing and the inherent limitations in today's methods. Further, these challenges are described, including aspects such as interference from the metabolic pathway and adjunct medications, temporal resolution, and clinical questions, with a specific focus on a comprehensive selection of molecules, such as adjunct medications and structural isomers, as an interferent panel designed to assess and validate future levodopa sensors. We review insights and lessons from previously reported levodopa sensors and present a comparative analysis of potential molecular recognition elements, discussing their advantages and drawbacks.

The recovery of sympathetic skin responses with levodopa in a patient with multiple system atrophy-parkinsonian type

Herein, we report a 62-year-old female patient with Multiple system atrophy (MSA) at whom the sympathetic skin responses (SSRs) were absent at initial investigations. However, the levodopa therapy provided normalization of SSRs and moderately improvement in orthostatic hypotension-related symptoms. Based on this rare illustration, we discuss the possible mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of autonomic dysfunction in MSA. We remark on the need for future clinical and experimental studies in this field.

Machine-learning model for the prediction of acute orthostatic hypotension after levodopa administration

BACKGROUND

Levodopa could induce orthostatic hypotension (OH) in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Accurate prediction of acute OH post levodopa (AOHPL) is important for rational drug use in PD patients. Here, we develop and validate a prediction model of AOHPL to facilitate physicians in identifying patients at higher probability of developing AOHPL.

METHODS

The study involved 497 PD inpatients who underwent a levodopa challenge test (LCT) and the supine-to-standing test (STS) four times during LCT. Patients were divided into two groups based on whether OH occurred during levodopa effectiveness (AOHPL) or not (non-AOHPL). The dataset was randomly split into training (80%) and independent test data (20%). Several models were trained and compared for discrimination between AOHPL and non-AOHPL. Final model was evaluated on independent test data. Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) values were employed to reveal how variables explain specific predictions for given observations in the independent test data.

RESULTS

We included 180 PD patients without AOHPL and 194 PD patients with AOHPL to develop and validate predictive models. Random Forest was selected as our final model as its leave-one-out cross validation performance [AUC_ROC 0.776, accuracy 73.6%, sensitivity 71.6%, specificity 75.7%] outperformed other models. The most crucial features in this predictive model were the maximal SBP drop and DBP drop of STS before medication (ΔSBP/ΔDBP). We achieved a prediction accuracy of 72% on independent test data. ΔSBP, ΔDBP, and standing mean artery pressure were the top three variables that contributed most to the predictions across all individual observations in the independent test data.

CONCLUSIONS

The validated classifier could serve as a valuable tool for clinicians, offering the probability of a patient developing AOHPL at an early stage. This supports clinical decision-making, potentially enhancing the quality of life for PD patients.

Setting the clinical context to non-motor symptoms reflected by Park-pain, Park-sleep, and Park-autonomic subtypes of Parkinson's disease

Non-motor symptoms (NMS) of Parkinson's disease (PD) are well described in both clinical practice and the literature, enabling their management and enhancing our understanding of PD. NMS can dominate the clinical pictures and NMS subtypes have recently been proposed, initially based on clinical observations, and later confirmed in data driven analyses of large datasets and in biomarker-based studies. In this chapter, we provide an update on what is known about three common subtypes of NMS in PD. The pain (Park-pain), sleep dysfunction (Park-sleep), and autonomic dysfunction (Park-autonomic), providing an overview of their individual classification, clinical manifestation, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and potential treatments.

Acute effect of levodopa on orthostatic hypotension and its association with motor responsiveness in Parkinson's disease: Results of acute levodopa challenge test

OBJECTIVE

Levodopa administration can induce or worsen orthostatic hypotension (OH) in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). Understanding of acute OH post levodopa (AOHPL) is important for rational drug use in PD patients. Primary objective of this study was to investigate the incidence of AOHPL in PD patients. The secondary objectives were a) hemodynamic character of AOHPL; b) risk factors of AOHPL; c) relationship between motor responsiveness and blood pressure (BP) change.

METHODS

490 PD inpatients underwent acute levodopa challenge test (LCT). Supine-to-standing test (STS) was done 4 times during LCT, including before levodopa and every hour post levodopa intake within 3 h. Patients were classified into two groups, AOHPL and non-AOHPL. A comprehensive set of clinical features scales was assessed, including both motor (e.g., motor response, wearing-off) and nonmotor symptoms (e.g., autonomic dysfunction, neuropsychology).

RESULTS

33.1% PD patients had OH before drug, 50.8% the same subjects had AOHPL during levodopa effectiveness. PD patients who had better response to levodopa likely to have lower standing mean artery pressure (MAP) and severer systolic BP drop after levodopa intake. BP increased when the motor performance worsened and vice versa. Beneficial response was a risk factors of AOHPL (OR = 1.624, P = 0.017).

CONCLUSIONS

AOHPL was very common in PD patients. We suggested that PD patients with risk factors should monitor hemodynamic change during LCT to avoid AOHPL following the introduction or increase of oral levodopa. The fluctuations of BP were complicated and multifactorial, likely caused by the process of PD and levodopa both.

Adverse Events of Physiotherapy Interventions in Parkinsonian Patients

Background

Physiotherapists have an ethical, professional, and regulatory responsibility for safety in all aspects of patient care. Notwithstanding, the adverse events issue has been inadequately addressed in the rehabilitation research field.

Objectives

To determine the frequency and characterize the adverse events that occur during or in between physiotherapy sessions for parkinsonian syndromes.

Methods

An exploratory clinical study was conducted. Physiotherapists were asked to actively report the adverse events that occurred during or between sessions for parkinsonian syndromes.

Results

A total of 100 patients were enrolled in the study, which resulted in 1845 sessions. The most common adverse events reported were falls, pain/discomfort, and hypotension, with a total of 128 adverse events reported.

Conclusions

During the physiotherapy sessions, adverse events do occur. Future research should clarify the relationship between AE occurrence and the type of intervention as well as causality and risk-minimization strategies.

Treatment strategies for clozapine-induced hypotension: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Clozapine is the most effective medication for treatment-refractory schizophrenia but is associated with significant adverse drug effects, including hypotension and dizziness, which have a negative impact on quality of life and treatment compliance. Available evidence for the management of clozapine-induced hypotension is scant.

OBJECTIVES

Due to limited guidance on the safety and efficacy of pharmacological treatments for clozapine-induced hypotension, we set out to systematically review and assess the evidence for the management of clozapine-induced hypotension and provide guidance to clinicians, patients, and carers.

DESIGN

We undertook a systematic review of the safety and efficacy of interventions for clozapine-induced hypotension given the limited available evidence.

DATA SOURCES AND METHODS

PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and the Cochrane trial Registry were searched from inception to November 2021 for literature on the treatment strategies for clozapine-induced hypotension and dizziness using a PROSPERO pre-registered search strategy. For orthostatic hypotension, we developed a management framework to assist in the choice of intervention.

RESULTS

We identified nine case studies and four case series describing interventions in 15 patients. Hypotension interventions included temporary clozapine dose reduction, non-pharmacological treatments, and pharmacological treatments. Midodrine, fludrocortisone, moclobemide and Bovril^® combination, and etilefrine were associated with improvement in symptoms or reduction in orthostatic hypotension. Angiotensin II, arginine vasopressin, and noradrenaline successfully restored and maintained mean arterial pressure in critical care situations. A paradoxical reaction of severe hypotension was reported with adrenaline use.

CONCLUSION

Orthostatic hypotension is a common side effect during clozapine titration. Following an assessment of the titration schedule, salt and fluid intake, and review of hypertensive and nonselective α1-adrenergic agents, first-line treatment should be a temporary reduction in clozapine dose or non-pharmacological interventions. If orthostatic hypotension persists, fludrocortisone should be trialled with monitoring of potassium levels and sodium and fluid intake. Midodrine may be considered second-line or where fludrocortisone is contraindicated or poorly tolerated. For patients on clozapine with hypotension in critical care settings, the use of adrenaline to maintain mean arterial pressure should be avoided.

REGISTRATION

PROSPERO (Registration No. CRD42020191530).

Parkinson Disease: Translating Insights from Molecular Mechanisms to Neuroprotection

Parkinson disease (PD) used to be considered a nongenetic condition. However, the identification of several autosomal dominant and recessive mutations linked to monogenic PD has changed this view. Clinically manifest PD is then thought to occur through a complex interplay between genetic mutations, many of which have incomplete penetrance, and environmental factors, both neuroprotective and increasing susceptibility, which variably interact to reach a threshold over which PD becomes clinically manifested. Functional studies of PD gene products have identified many cellular and molecular pathways, providing crucial insights into the nature and causes of PD. PD originates from multiple causes and a range of pathogenic processes at play, ultimately culminating in nigral dopaminergic loss and motor dysfunction. An in-depth understanding of these complex and possibly convergent pathways will pave the way for therapeutic approaches to alleviate the disease symptoms and neuroprotective strategies to prevent disease manifestations. This review is aimed at providing a comprehensive understanding of advances made in PD research based on leveraging genetic insights into the pathogenesis of PD. It further discusses novel perspectives to facilitate identification of critical molecular pathways that are central to neurodegeneration that hold the potential to develop neuroprotective and/or neurorestorative therapeutic strategies for PD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A comprehensive review of PD pathophysiology is provided on the complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors and biologic processes that contribute to PD pathogenesis. This knowledge identifies new targets that could be leveraged into disease-modifying therapies to prevent or slow neurodegeneration in PD.

Ropinirole-Associated Orthostatic Hypotension as Cause of a Prescribing Cascade in an Elderly Man

Ropinirole is an overall well-tolerated antiparkinsonian medication that is also used to treat restless leg syndrome (RLS). The incidence of side effects is low, with orthostatic hypotension (OH) only anecdotally reported. Additionally, it is known that the elderly population is very susceptible to adverse drug effects and the prevalence of prescribing cascades that these can trigger is unknown.

A 71-year-old male with history of atrial fibrillation, well-controlled diabetes on oral agents, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, ischemic heart failure status post (s/p) implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) placement with improved ejection fraction (EF), transient ischemic attack (TIA), rheumatoid arthritis, RLS, aortic stenosis s/p mechanical aortic valve replacement on anticoagulation, deep venous thrombosis (DVT), and right knee replacement, presented to the ED with generalized weakness, with difficulty standing from seated position, followed by a fall without head trauma. Over the eight months prior to this presentation, the patient had had similar symptoms that resulted in four falls, two hospital admissions, and new prescriptions of midodrine and compression stockings.

On admission, vital signs were remarkable for positive orthostatics with blood pressure (BP) 110/74 mmHg, heart rate (HR) of 86 bpm in supine position and BP 87/51 mmHg, HR of 70 bpm while in standing position. Physical exam was unremarkable except for a known ejection murmur and dry oral mucous membranes. Labs included a creatinine 3.6 mg/dl, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) 66 mg/dl, international normalized ration (INR) of 4.1, B-natriuretic peptide (BNP) of 313 pg/mL, troponin <0.03 ng/mL. A kidney ultrasound was normal, and a transthoracic echocardiogram showed left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF) of 55-65%, improved compared to a prior study. Furosemide, carvedilol and canagliflozin were discontinued and IV fluids were administered. In the subsequent days, his creatinine improved, and so did the patient's volume status, but he continued to be orthostatic despite midodrine and stockings. On further interview, the patient disclosed starting ropinirole 0.25 mg three times daily approximately 10 months prior to this admission, due to asymptomatic RLS that was reported in a sleep study. Decision was made to discontinue this medication, which resulted in improvement of symptoms. We were able to discontinue IV fluids, midodrine and stockings, and reintroduce carvedilol, furosemide and canagliflozin in a stepwise manner. In a follow-up visit one month after discharge, the patient was symptom-free.

This case illustrates two major points. First, this prescribing cascade potentially induced by ropinirole, as well as the increase in health care costs associated to iatrogenic admissions, is major preventable problem faced mostly by the geriatric population. Second, although OH associated with ropinirole has only been reported in patients treated for Parkinson’s disease, this side effect should be considered when prescribing ropinirole for other indications, with cautious assessment of risks and benefits. Further studies need to be conducted to establish the frequency of OH related to ropinirole.

Total hip arthroplasty in Parkinson's disease patients: a propensity score-matched analysis with minimum 2-year surveillance

INTRODUCTION

Parkinson's disease (PD) patients experience chronic pain related to osteoarthritis at comparable rates to the general population. While total hip arthroplasty (THA) effectively improves pain, functionality, and quality of life in PD patients, long-term outcomes following THA are under-reported. This study sought to investigate whether PD patients have an increased risk of complications and revision following THA in comparison to the general population.

METHODS

Utilising New York State's Statewide Planning and Research Cooperative System, all PD patients who underwent THA from 2009 to 2011 with minimum 2-year follow-up were identified. A control group (no-PD) was created via 1:1 propensity score-matching by age, gender, and Charlson/Deyo score. Univariate analysis compared demographics, complications, and revisions. Multivariate binary stepwise logistic regression identified independent predictors of outcomes.

RESULTS

470 propensity score-matched patients (PD: n = 235; no-PD: n = 235) were identified. PD patients demonstrated higher rates of overall and postoperative wound infection (p < 0.05), with comparable individual and overall complication and revision rates. PD did not increase odds of complications or revisions. PD patients had lengthier hospital stay (4.97 vs. 4.07 days, p = 0.001) and higher proportion of second primary THA >2-years postoperatively (69.4% vs. 59.6%, p = 0.027). Charlson/Deyo index was the greatest predictor of any surgical complication (OR = 1.17, p = 0.029). Female sex was the strongest predictor of any medical complication (OR = 2.21, p < 0.001).

DISCUSSION

Despite lengthier hospital stays and infection-related complications, PD patients experienced comparable complication and revision rates to patients from the general population undergoing THA.

Regional analysis of cerebral hemodynamic changes during the head-up tilt test in Parkinson's disease patients with orthostatic intolerance

Significance: Cerebral oxygenation changes in the superior, middle, and medial gyri were used to elucidate spatial impairments of autonomic hemodynamic recovery during the head-up tilt table test (HUTT) in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients with orthostatic intolerance (OI) symptoms. Aim: To analyze dynamic oxygenation changes during the HUTT and classify PD patients with OI symptoms using clinical and oxygenation features. Approach: Thirty-nine PD patients with OI symptoms [10: orthostatic hypotension (PD-OH); 29: normal HUTT results (PD-NOR)] and seven healthy controls (HCs) were recruited. Prefrontal oxyhemoglobin (HbO) changes during the HUTT were reconstructed with diffuse optical tomography and segmented using the automated anatomical labeling system. Decision trees were used for classification. Results: HCs and PD-NOR patients with positive rates of HbO change (PD-POS) showed the greatest HbO recovery in the superior frontal gyrus (SFG) during tilt. PD-OH and PD-NOR patients with negative rates of HbO change (PD-NEG) showed asymmetric reoxygenation. The classification accuracy was 89.4% for PD-POS versus PD-NEG, 71% for PD-NOR versus PD-OH, and 55.8% for PD-POS versus PD-NEG versus PD-OH. The oxygenation features were more discriminative than the clinical features. Conclusions: PD-OH showed decreased right SFG function, which may be associated with impaired compensatory autonomic responses to orthostatic stress.

Nocturnal blood pressure changes in Parkinson's disease: correlation with autonomic dysfunction and vitamin D levels

Nocturnal blood pressure (BP) changes are an indicator of autonomic dysfunction. We aim to investigate the correlation between nocturnal blood pressure (BP) variability, vitamin D levels and Parkinson's disease severity (PD) in this study. Thirty-five patients with PD participated in the study. Disease severity was evaluated by United Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) and Hoehn and Yahr Scale (HYS). Equivalent levodopa dose was calculated and 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels were measured. The Non-Motor Symptom Questionnaire (NMSQ) was applied to all patients. Ambulatory BP monitoring for 24 h was established. Patients were divided into three groups according to nocturnal BP results: dippers (normal finding-a decline in mean nighttime BP of more than 10%); non-dippers (pathological-a decline in mean nighttime BP of less than 10%); reverse dippers (pathological-an increase in mean nighttime BP) .The mean score of the NMSQ was higher in the group with HYS > 2 (p = 0.050). Four patients were dipper, 17 patients were non-dipper and 16 patients were reverse dipper. There was no significant difference between the three groups in terms of age, gender, disease duration, age of the disease onset, disease stage, disease duration, dopamine agonist usage, levodopa equivalent dose, vitamin D level and NMSQ scores. NMSQ scores are high in advanced PD. Ambulatory BP monitoring is useful in detecting autonomic dysfunction. The number of patients with non-dipping and reverse dipping is high in PD, independent from PD severity, drug dose, vitamin D and the other NMS symptoms.

Clinical Impact of Deep Brain Stimulation on the Autonomic System in Patients with Parkinson's Disease

Background

The role of deep brain stimulation (DBS) in the management of motor symptoms in patients with Parkinson's disease is well defined. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that DBS can either improve or worsen a number of non-motor phenomena.

Objectives

We examined the published literature to better understand the effects on autonomic symptoms following DBS of the subthalamic nucleus and the globus pallidus interna.

Methods

We conducted a PubMed search of studies regarding the effects of DBS on the autonomic system published from January 2001. We searched for the following terms and their combinations: Parkinson's disease, deep brain stimulation, subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus interna, autonomic dysfunction.

Results

Most studies reported in the literature focus on DBS targeting the subthalamic nucleus, with particular emphasis on favorable outcomes regarding gastrointestinal function and bladder control. However, the emergence or worsening of autonomic symptoms in subgroups of patients has also been documented. More controversial is the effect of stimulation on the cardiovascular, pulmonary, and thermo-regulatory systems as well as sexual functioning. Data regarding the influence of DBS on the autonomic system when the target is the globus pallidus interna is less forthcoming, with target selection varying according to centre and clinical indication.

Conclusions

DBS appears to affect the autonomic nervous system, with varying degrees of influence, which may or may not be clinically beneficial for the patient. A better understanding of these effects could help personalize stimulation for individual patients with autonomic disorders and/or avoid autonomic symptoms in susceptible patients.

Cerebral hemodynamic monitoring of Parkinson's disease patients with orthostatic intolerance during head-up tilt test

Significance: Monitoring of cerebral perfusion rather than blood pressure changes during a head-up tilt test (HUTT) is proposed to understand the pathophysiological effect of orthostatic intolerance (OI), including orthostatic hypotension (OH), in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Aim: We aim to characterize and distinguish the cerebral perfusion response to a HUTT for healthy controls (HCs) and PD patients with OI symptoms. Approach: Thirty-nine PD patients with OI symptoms [10 PD patients with OH (PD-OH) and 29 PD patients with normal HUTT results (PD-NOR)], along with seven HCs participated. A 108-channel diffuse optical tomography (DOT) system was used to reconstruct prefrontal oxyhemoglobin (HbO), deoxyhemoglobin (Hb), and total hemoglobin (HbT) changes during dynamic tilt (from supine to 70-deg tilt) and static tilt (remained tilted at 70 deg). Results: HCs showed rapid recovery of cerebral perfusion in the early stages of static tilt. PD-OH patients showed decreasing HbO and HbT during dynamic tilt, continuing into the static tilt period. The rate of HbO change from dynamic tilt to static tilt is the distinguishing feature between HCs and PD-OH patients. Accordingly, PD-NOR patients were subgrouped based on positive-rate and negative-rate of HbO change. PD patients with a negative rate of HbO change were more likely to report severe OI symptoms in the COMPASS questionnaire. Conclusions: Our findings showcase the usability of DOT for sensitive detection and quantification of autonomic dysfunction in PD patients with OI symptoms, even those with normal HUTT results.

Simultaneous electrochemical detection of levodapa, paracetamol and l-tyrosine based on multi-walled carbon nanotubes

A novel electrochemical sensor for the simultaneous detection of levodopa, paracetamol and l-tyrosine was developed based on multi-walled carbon nanotubes. The sensor has the merits of wide linear range, good selectivity and good reproducibility.

Falls in Synucleinopathies

Parkinson's disease (PD) and other synucleinopathies, namely dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and multiple system atrophy (MSA), are common degenerative neurological disorders that share synuclein pathology. Although certain cardinal features of parkinsonism, including bradykinesia and rigidity, respond well to levodopa, axial features, such as gait and balance impairment, are less reliably responsive to dopaminergic therapy and surgical interventions. Consequently, falls are common in PD and other synucleinopathies and are a major contributor toward injury and loss of independence. This underscores the need for appropriate fall risk assessment and implementation of preventative measures in all patients with parkinsonism. The aim of this review is therefore to explore modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for falls in synucleinopathies. We next review and evaluate the evidence for pharmacological, nonpharmacological, and surgical approaches for fall prevention, and emphasize individualized and multifaceted approaches.

Genetic variability of inflammation and oxidative stress genes does not play a major role in the occurrence of adverse events of dopaminergic treatment in Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

Inflammation and oxidative stress are recognized as important contributors to Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. As such, genetic variability in these pathways could have a role in susceptibility for the disease as well as in the treatment outcome. Dopaminergic treatment is effective in management of motor symptoms, but poses a risk for motor and non-motor adverse events. Our aim was to evaluate the impact of selected single-nucleotide polymorphisms in genes involved in inflammation and oxidative stress on Parkinson's disease susceptibility and the occurrence of adverse events of dopaminergic treatment.

METHODS

In total, 224 patients were enrolled, and their demographic and clinical data on the disease course were collected. Furthermore, a control group of 146 healthy Slovenian blood donors were included for Parkinson's disease' risk evaluation. Peripheral blood was obtained for DNA isolation. Genotyping was performed for NLRP3 rs35829419, CARD8 rs2043211, IL1β rs16944, IL1β rs1143623, IL6 rs1800795, CAT rs1001179, CAT rs10836235, SOD2 rs4880, NOS1 rs2293054, NOS1 rs2682826, TNF-α rs1800629, and GPX1 rs1050450. Logistic regression was used for analysis of possible associations.

RESULTS

We observed a nominally significant association of the IL1β rs1143623 C allele with the risk for Parkinson's disease (OR = 0.59; 95%CI = 0.38-0.92, p = 0.021). CAT rs1001179 A allele was significantly associated with peripheral edema (OR = 0.32; 95%CI = 0.15-0.68; p = 0.003). Other associations observed were only nominally significant after adjustments: NOS1 rs2682826 A allele and excessive daytime sleepiness and sleep attacks (OR = 1.75; 95%CI = 1.00-3.06, p = 0.048), SOD2 rs4880 T allele and nausea/vomiting (OR = 0.49, 95%CI = 0.25-0.94; p = 0.031), IL1β rs1143623 C allele and orthostatic hypotension (OR = 0.57, 95%CI = 0.32-1.00, p = 0.050), and NOS1 rs2682826 A allele and impulse control disorders (OR = 2.59; 95%CI = 1.09-6.19; p = 0.032). We did not find any associations between selected polymorphisms and motor adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

Apart from some nominally significant associations, one significant association between CAT genetic variability and peripheral edema was observed as well. Therefore, the results of our study suggest some links between genetic variability in inflammation- and oxidative stress-related pathways and non-motor adverse events of dopaminergic treatment. However, the investigated polymorphisms do not play a major role in the occurrence of the disease and the adverse events of dopaminergic treatment.

Prevalence and Clinical Characteristics of Probable REM Behavior Disorder in Thai Parkinson's Disease Patients

Background

Previous studies have shown that Parkinson's disease (PD) patients who have REM behavior disorder (PD with RBD) might be a PD subtype since they have different symptom clusters and disease trajectories from PD without RBD.

Objective

To study the prevalence of PD with pRBD and to compare the clinical characteristics with PD without pRBD. The feasibility of clinical interview of items adopted from the Mayo Sleep Questionnaire was also to be determined.

Methods

A total of 140 Parkinson's patients visiting neurological clinics during January to December 2016 were enrolled in this study. “Probable RBD (pRBD)” was defined as present when the patient answered “yes” to a question adapted from the first Mayo Sleep Questionnaire (MSQ). The demographic data, motor symptoms, and nonmotor symptoms were obtained.

Results

The prevalence of pRBD among this study's PD patients was 48.5% (68 out of the total of 140). The median onset of RBD before PD diagnosis was 5 years (range: 0–11 years). By comparison of PD with pRBD and PD without pRBD, this study showed significant difference in the levodopa equivalent dose (742 mg/day versus 566 mg/day; p < 0.01), prevalence of symptomatic orthostatic hypotension (35.3% versus 8.3%; p < 0.01). The multivariable analysis found that pRBD is independently associated with orthostatic hypotension (OR = 5.02, p < 0.01). Conclusion. The findings regarding prevalence and main clinical features of PD with pRBD in this study were similar to those of a previous study of PD with polysomnogram- (PSG-) proven RBD. This study hypothesized that interviewing by adopted MSQ may be a cost-effective tool for screening RBD. Further studies with direct comparison are needed.

Symptomatic orthostatic hypotension in Parkinson's disease patients: Prevalence, associated factors and its impact on balance confidence

BACKGROUND

Orthostatic hypotension (OH) is a commonly reported sign of the cardiovascular autonomic dysfunctions associated with Parkinson's disease (PD). Patients might suffer from a variety of the clinical symptoms of OH, including dizziness, lightheadedness, or problems with vision and fatigue.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of, and factors associated with, symptomatic orthostatic hypotension (OH) in Parkinson's disease (PD) and to identify any relationships between the clinical symptoms of OH and balance confidence in this patient population.

METHODS

Symptomatic OH was defined as a systolic or diastolic BP fall of ≥20 or ≥10mmHg respectively, within 3min of standing and an Orthostatic Hypotension Questionnaire (OHQ) score of more than zero. Factors related to symptomatic OH were identified from a multivariate logistic regression analysis. Pearson's correlation test was used to reveal any relationships between the clinical symptoms of OH and a patient's confidence in their ability to balance, assessed using the Activities-specific Balance Confidence (ABC) scale.

RESULTS

100 Thai PD patients were consecutively recruited into this study. The prevalence of symptomatic OH was 18%, asymptomatic OH was 4%, while 78% were patients without OH. Factors associated with symptomatic OH were age (OR, 95%CI: 1.06, 1.003-1.115, p=0.038) and hypertension (OR, 95%CI: 6.16, 1.171-32.440, p=0.032). A significant and negative correlation (r=-0.229, p=0.022) between OHQ composite scores and item 3 of the ABC scale (picking up slippers from floor), one of the movements in a vertical orientation, was found.

CONCLUSION

Elderly PD patients and with a co-morbidity of essential hypertension should be closely evaluated for the presence of symptomatic OH. In addition, they should be advised to change positions slowly, especially those in a vertical orientation.

Rotigotine in Combination with the MAO-B Inhibitor Selegiline in Early Parkinson's Disease: A Post Hoc Analysis

Background: Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors and dopamine receptor agonists are common first-line treatment options in early Parkinson’s disease (PD).

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of rotigotine transdermal patch as an add-on therapy to an MAO-B inhibitor in patients with early-PD.

Methods: In two Phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies in early-PD (SP512, SP513), patients were randomized to rotigotine (titrated to optimal dose ≤8 mg/24 h) or placebo, and maintained for 24 (SP512) or 33 (SP513) weeks. Post hoc analyses were performed on pooled data for patients receiving an MAO-B inhibitor (selegiline) at a stable dose at randomization and throughout the studies, with groups defined as “Selegiline+Rotigotine” and “Selegiline+Placebo”. Outcome measures included change from baseline in Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) II (activities of daily living), III (motor), UPDRS II+III and responders (patients achieving ≥20%, ≥25% or ≥30% decrease in UPDRS II+III). As post hoc analyses, p-values are exploratory.

Results: 130 patients were evaluable for efficacy analyses (“Selegiline+Rotigotine”: 84, “Selegiline+Placebo”: 46). Combined treatment with rotigotine and selegiline improved UPDRS III and UPDRS II+III scores versus selegiline alone (LS-mean [95% CI] treatment difference for UPDRS III: –4.89 [–7.87 to –1.91], p = 0.0015; for UPDRS II+III: –5.76 [–9.71 to –1.82], p = 0.0045). Higher proportion of patients in the “Selegiline+Rotigotine” group were classified as ≥20%, ≥25% or ≥30% responders (all p < 0.001). Combined treatment appeared more effective in patients aged ≤65 years versus > 65 years (although patient numbers in the subgroups were low). Adverse event profile was consistent with the known safety profile of rotigotine.

Conclusions: In these post hoc analyses, adjunctive treatment with rotigotine in patients already receiving an MAO-B inhibitor improved UPDRS II+III score; this appeared to be largely driven by improvements in the motor aspects of PD.

Role of peripheral vascular resistance as an indicator of cardiovascular abnormalities in patients with Parkinson's disease

The aim of this study was to evaluate cardiovascular autonomic modulation in response to an orthostatic stress in healthy subjects and Parkinson's disease (PD). The study included 47 controls and 56 PD patients divided into groups (vasoconstrictor PD, vasodilator PD, control) according to vasodilation/vasoconstriction response during 70° head up tilt test. Using impedance cardiography (ICG) and electrocardiography (ECG) we measured stroke volume, cardiac output, left ventricular work index, left ventricular ejection time, acceleration index, index of contractility, Heather index, thoracic fluid content, total peripheral resistance, total arterial compliance. We also analyzed heart rate variability (HRV), using spectral analysis and continuous blood pressure (contBP). At rest, the vasodilator PD group showed significantly higher values of total peripheral resistance and lower values of stroke volume and cardiac output, compared to the vasoconstrictor PD and the control groups. A post-tilt drop in ∆ (change rest - tilt) systolic blood pressure, ∆mean blood pressure, ∆total peripheral resistance and ∆Heather index, and a significantly lower increase in ∆diastolic blood pressure was observed in subjects from the vasodilator PD group compared to the vasoconstrictor PD and the control groups. No statistically significant differences were observed for HRV parameters between the vasoconstrictor and vasodilator PD groups, P > .05. Longer duration and higher disease stage of PD correlated with a reduction in post-tilt systolic blood pressure changes in vasodilator group. Positive inotropy of the cardiac muscle represents a significant factor preventing orthostatic hypotension in PD subjects with a concurrent drop in peripheral vascular resistance during orthostatic stress.

Treatment of Nonmotor Symptoms in Parkinson's Disease

Nonmotor symptoms (NMS) are integral to Parkinson's disease (PD) and the management can often be challenging. In spite of the growing evidence that NMS have a key impact on the quality of life of patients and caregivers, most clinical trials still focus on motor symptoms as primary outcomes. As a consequence strong evidence-based treatment recommendations for NMS occurring in PD are spare. In this chapter, the current data addressing the treatment of major NMS such as sleep, cognitive and autonomic dysfunction, and depression and anxiety are described.

Treatment of Older Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease. The prevalence of PD increases with age. The spectrum of clinical features, the rate of progression of the disease, the burden of nonmotor symptoms, and the response to medications are different in older patients with PD from the relatively younger patients. Management of symptoms of PD in older patients is challenging because of possible existence of several age-related systemic illness. While dealing with older patients, it is crucial not to attribute all the physical symptoms to PD. Thorough evaluation for existence of diseases such as normal pressure hydrocephalus and vascular parkinsonism which partially mimic the symptoms of PD carries immense importance. Medical management of parkinsonian symptoms should be preferred with levodopa monotherapy. However, in patients with significant motor fluctuations, dopaminergic agents may be added with caution, as they are notorious for several adverse reactions. Nonmotor symptoms must be provided high importance as they substantially worsen the quality of life. In addition to parkinsonian symptoms, older patients with PD may need to undergo surgery for several conditions. Meticulous perioperative management is crucial as older patients with PD may face several surgery-related complications compared to the younger patients. Compliance to treatment is an important issue in old age. Hence multidisciplinary approach to management of PD in older patients should be emphasized.

Characterizations of a synthetic pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide analog displaying potent neuroprotective activity and reduced in vivo cardiovascular side effects in a Parkinson's disease model

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by a steady loss of dopamine neurons through apoptotic, inflammatory and oxidative stress processes. In that line of view, the pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), with its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and its anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties, has proven to offer potent neuroprotection in various PD models. Nonetheless, its peripheral actions, paired with low metabolic stability, hampered its clinical use. We have developed Ac-[Phe(pI)(6), Nle(17)]PACAP(1-27) as an improved PACAP-derived neuroprotective compound. In vitro, this analog stimulated cAMP production, maintained mitochondrial potential and protected SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells from 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) toxicity, as potently as PACAP. Furthermore, contrasting with PACAP, it is stable in human plasma and against dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity. When injected intravenously to 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated mice, PACAP and Ac-[Phe(pI)(6), Nle(17)]PACAP(1-27) restored tyrosine hydoxylase expression into the substantia nigra and modulated the inflammatory response. Albeit falls of mean arterial pressure (MAP) were observed with both PACAP- and Ac-[Phe(pI)(6), Nle(17)]PACAP(1-27)-treated mice, the intensity of the decrease as well as its duration were significantly less marked after iv injections of the analog than after those of the native polypeptide. Moreover, no significant changes in heart rate were measured with the animals for both compounds. Thus, Ac-[Phe(pI)(6), Nle(17)]PACAP(1-27) appears as a promising lead molecule for the development of PACAP-derived drugs potentially useful for the treatment of PD or other neurodegenerative diseases.

Treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Later stage Parkinson's disease, sometimes referred to as advanced disease, has been characterized by motor complication, as well as by the potential emergence of nonlevodopa responsive motor and nonmotor symptoms. The management of advanced stage Parkinson's disease can be complex. This review summarizes the currently available treatment strategies for addressing advanced Parkinson's disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

We will discuss the latest pharmacological strategies (e.g., inhibitors of dopamine-metabolizing enzymes, dopamine agonists, and extended release dopamine formulations) for addressing motor dysfunction. We will summarize the risks and benefits of current invasive treatments. Finally, we will address the current evidence supporting the treatment of nonmotor symptoms in the advanced Parkinson's disease patient. We will conclude by detailing the potential nonpharmacological and multidisciplinary approaches for advanced stage Parkinson's disease.

SUMMARY

The optimization of levodopa is, in most cases, the most powerful therapeutic option available; however, medication optimization requires an advanced understanding of Parkinson's disease. Failure of conventional pharmacotherapy should precipitate a discussion of the potential risks and benefits of more invasive treatments. Currently, there are no comparative studies of invasive treatment. Among the invasive treatments, deep brain stimulation has the largest amount of existing evidence, but also has the highest individual per patient risk. Nonmotor symptoms will affect quality of life more than the motor Parkinson's disease symptoms, and these nonmotor symptoms should be aggressively treated. Many advanced Parkinson's disease patients will likely benefit from multi and interdisciplinary Parkinson's disease teams with multiple professionals collaborating to develop a collective and tailored strategy for an individual patient.

Enhanced Exercise Therapy in Parkinson's disease: A comparative effectiveness trial

Objectives

Exercise can improve motor function in people with Parkinson’s disease but depression reduces the motivation to participate in regular exercise. The aim of this study was to develop a novel Enhanced Exercise Therapy program that uses manual-driven guided exercise and peer-facilitated psychoeducation for individuals with Parkinson’s disease and depression.

Design

24 week randomized controlled design.

Methods

Thirty individuals were randomized to Enhanced Exercise Therapy or self-guided therapy, and evaluated at baseline, 12-weeks and at 24-weeks. Enhanced Exercise Therapy included group exercise and group psychoeducation for 12 weeks. Between 13–24 weeks, individuals had access to the fitness facility but group sessions were not held. Self-guided therapy included written guidelines for a self-paced exercise program and psychoeducation. Primary outcome measures included the number of exercise sessions and International Physical Activity Questionnaire score. Secondary measures included resting heart rate, supine blood pressure, estimated VO₂max and incidence of orthostatic hypotension.

Results

Twenty four individuals completed the study (80% retention) and both groups attended similar number of exercise sessions. There were no significant changes in cardiovascular fitness measures but there was a significant increase in the amount of physical activity in the Enhanced Exercise Therapy group and a decrease in the self-guided therapy group during the post-intervention period.

Conclusions

Enhanced exercise therapy appears to promote engagement in an exercise program and more physical activity, even after group sessions were concluded in individuals with Parkinson’s disease and depression.

Treadmill gait training improves baroreflex sensitivity in Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

Partial weight supported treadmill gait training (PWSTT) is widely used in rehabilitation of gait in patient with Parkinson’s Diseases (PD). However, its effect on blood pressure variability (BPV) and baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) in PD has not been studied.

AIM

To evaluate the effect of conventional and treadmill gait training on BPV components and BRS.

METHODS

Sixty patients with idiopathic PD were randomized into three groups. Twenty patients in control group were on only stable medication, 20 patients in conventional gait training (CGT) group (Stable medication with CGT) and 20 patients in PWSTT group (Stable medication with 20 % PWSTT). The CGT and PWSTT sessions were given for 30 min per day, 4 days per week, for 4 weeks (16 sessions). Groups were evaluated in their best ‘ON’ states. The beat-to-beat finger blood pressure (BP) was recorded for 10 min using a Finometer instrument (Finapres Medical Systems, The Netherlands). BPV and BRS results were derived from artifact-free 5-min segments using Nevrocard software.

RESULTS

BRS showed a significant group with time interaction (F = 6.930; p = 0.003). Post-hoc analysis revealed that PWSTT group showed significant improvement in BRS (p < 0.001) after 4 weeks of training. No significant differences found in BPV parameters; systolic BP, diastolic BP, co-variance of systolic BP and low frequency component of systolic BP.

CONCLUSIONS

Four weeks of PWSTT significantly improves BRS in patients with PD. It can be considered as a non-invasive method of influencing BRS for prevention of orthostatic BP fall in patients with PD.

Role of cardiac sympathetic nerves in preventing orthostatic hypotension in Parkinson's disease

PURPOSE

Cardiac sympathetic denervation is associated with orthostatic hypotension (OH) in Parkinson's disease (PD); however, the physiological role of cardiac sympathetic nerves has yet to be elucidated. To clarify the role of the heart in orthostatic stress, we evaluated whether cardiac sympathetic nerves can alter cardiac activity and systolic blood pressure (BP) in association with elevations or depressions of total peripheral resistance during the head-up tilt test.

METHODS

Ninety-five PD patients and 17 normal controls were enrolled. Using impedance cardiography, we measured total peripheral resistance, stroke volume, heart rate, and systolic BP during the head-up tilt test. Cardiac denervation was defined as a heart-to-mediastinum ratio <1.7 for cardiac (123)I-metaiodobenzylguanidine uptake on delayed images.

RESULTS

At 60° tilt, total peripheral resistance decreased from the initial value in 49 PD patients. Among these, 36 patients exhibited cardiac denervation with severe reductions in systolic BP but little change in stroke volume; among these patients 22 had OH. The remaining 13 patients without cardiac denervation exhibited significant increases in stroke volume and well-preserved systolic BP with no OH. On the other hand, 46 patients had elevations in total peripheral resistance and reduced stroke volume, but little change in systolic BP, regardless of the presence or absence of cardiac denervation. Only one of these patients experienced OH.

CONCLUSION

Under orthostatic stress, cardiac sympathetic denervation with failure to increase total peripheral resistance leads to large reductions in systolic BP. However, patients without cardiac denervation exhibited a positive inotropic response against vasodilatation, which may prevent OH.

Parkinson disease: an update

BACKGROUND

Over the past decade, the treatment of Parkinson disease (PD) has undergone tremendous changes. New drugs have been introduced to manage the cardinal motor symptoms of PD, and other agents have been borrowed to treat the nonmotor manifestations of the illness. For neurologists faced with the task of treating PD patients, the available array of medications may be confusing and intimidating.

REVIEW SUMMARY

In this review, I summarize the newest approved medications for the treatment of PD, including the new dopamine agonists and catechol-O-methyl-transferase inhibitors. I also describe agents that are used to treat common problems in PD patients, including hallucinations, orthostasis, nausea, erectile dysfunction, depression, and memory loss. Guidelines for handling common scenarios in PD patients will be illustrated by 10 case histories. Finally, the most promising PD drugs that are currently in development will be reviewed.

CONCLUSIONS

Neurologists have a vast armamentarium to treat both motor and nonmotor manifestations of PD. Understanding this array allows the astute clinician to improve the lives of their patients with PD.