Less Effort, Better Results: How Does Music Act on Prefrontal Cortex in Older Adults during Verbal Encoding? An fNIRS Study

On the role of familiarity and developmental exposure in music-evoked autobiographical memories

Music-evoked autobiographical memories (MEAMs) are typically elicited by music that listeners have heard before. While studies that have directly manipulated music familiarity show that familiar music evokes more MEAMs than music listeners have not heard before, music that is unfamiliar to the listener can also sporadically cue autobiographical memory. Here we examined whether music that sounds familiar even without previous exposure can produce spontaneous MEAMs. Cognitively healthy older adults (N = 75, ages 65-80 years) listened to music clips that were chosen by researchers to be either familiar or unfamiliar (i.e., varying by prior exposure). Participants then disclosed whether the clip elicited a MEAM and later provided self-reported familiarity ratings for each. Self-reported familiarity was positively associated with the occurrence of MEAMs in response to familiar, but not the unfamiliar, music. The likelihood of reporting MEAMs for music released during youth (i.e., the "reminiscence bump") relative to young adulthood (20-25 years) included both music released during participants' adolescence (14-18 years) and middle childhood (5-9 years) once self-reported familiarity was accounted for. These developmental effects could not be accounted for by music-evoked affect. Overall, our results suggest that the phenomenon of MEAMs hinges upon both perceptions of familiarity and prior exposure.

The effects of active and relaxing music on the short-term memory, attention and metabolic parameters of type 2 diabetes patients (T2DM)

Objective

Metabolic parameters and cognition are known to be impaired in diabetes, while music seems to have an impact on both. We aimed to study the effects of active and relaxing music on the short-term memory, attention and metabolic parameters of type 2 diabetes patients (T2DM).

Methods

A two-day interventional, within-subject study was carried on 89 T2DM patients treated only with metformin and 67 age- and sex-matched control. The Pieron Toulouse test and Word Recognition Test were used to evaluate attention and short-term memory. The music listened to was the Allegro, respectively the Andante parts of 2 Mozart Sonatas. Cognitive tests, blood pressure and blood glucose measurements were performed before and after each 20 minutes of music intervention.

Results

Baseline attention performance was better in the control group compared to T2DM (p<0.000). Performance improved significantly in both groups under both types of music, however the last to the first measurement difference was higher in the control group (p=0.04). Female T2DM participants had better improvement under active music (p<0.01). Short-term memory improved during active music, but this was significant only in the control group (p=0.041). Both types of music were associated with significantly lower systolic blood pressure (p=0.00), while relaxing music significantly reduced blood glucose levels (p=0.00).

Conclusion

Our study highlighted the beneficial effect of music on metabolic and cognitive parameters, however, its impact depends on the type of music listened. Furthermore, cognitive scores of T2DM, especially in men, were less influenced by music than those of the control group.

Atypical prefrontal neural activity during an emotional interference control task in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is typically characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, which may be associated with a failure to naturally orient to social stimuli, particularly in recognizing and responding to facial emotions. As most previous studies have used nonsocial stimuli to investigate inhibitory control in children and adults with ASD, little is known about the behavioral and neural activation patterns of emotional inhibitory control in adolescent with ASD. Functional neuroimaging studies have underscored the key role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in inhibitory control and emotional face processing. Thus, this study aimed to examine whether adolescent with ASD exhibited altered PFC processing during an emotional Flanker task by using non-invasive functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Twenty-one adolescents with high-functioning ASD and 26 typically developing (TD) adolescents aged 13-16 years were recruited. All participants underwent an emotional Flanker task, which required to decide whether the centrally positioned facial emotion is consistent with the laterally positioned facial emotion. TD adolescents exhibited larger RT and mean O2Hb level in the incongruent condition than the congruent condition, evoking cortical activations primarily in right PFC regions in response to the emotional Flanker effect. In contrast, ASD adolescents failed to exhibit the processing advantage for congruent versus incongruent emotional face in terms of RT, but showed cortical activations primarily in left PFC regions in response to the emotional Flanker effect. These findings suggest that adolescents with ASD rely on different neural strategies to mobilize PFC neural resources to address the difficulties they experience when inhibiting the emotional face.

Does the Sensory Experience of Words Boost Recollection in Aging?

OBJECTIVES

We examine age-related differences in recollection and test the impact of words with high vs low sensory experience ratings (SER) in older and younger adults. We expected that the recollection of words with high SER would be similar in older and young adults, as they depend on knowledge, unlike recollection of words with a low SER, which would depend on executive functions.

METHODS

We manipulated the sensory experience of words (high vs. low) in encoding in young and older adults. The participants then took a word-recognition test using the Remember/Know paradigm (Gardiner, 1988). We also evaluated executive functions using several measures.

RESULTS

Results show that the age-related difference in recollective experience was eliminated under the high SER encoding condition. Moreover, Remember (R) responses in the low SER condition seem to be related to executive functioning, unlike R responses in the high SER condition and Know (K) responses in both low and high SER conditions.

DISCUSSION

Our study shows that the memory benefit of high-SER words is greater for older than younger adults. The study also supports the observation that older adults can compensate for their deficits by using sensory experience to consciously recollect information.

Lights on music cognition: A systematic and critical review of fNIRS applications and future perspectives

Research investigating the neural processes related to music perception and production constitutes a well-established field within the cognitive neurosciences. While most neuroimaging tools have limitations in studying the complexity of musical experiences, functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) represents a promising, relatively new tool for studying music processes in both laboratory and ecological settings, which is also suitable for both typical and pathological populations across development. Here we systematically review fNIRS studies on music cognition, highlighting prospects and potentialities. We also include an overview of fNIRS basic theory, together with a brief comparison to characteristics of other neuroimaging tools. Fifty-nine studies meeting inclusion criteria (i.e., using fNIRS with music as the primary stimulus) are presented across five thematic sections. Critical discussion of methodology leads us to propose guidelines of good practices aiming for robust signal analyses and reproducibility. A continuously updated world map is proposed, including basic information from studies meeting the inclusion criteria. It provides an organized, accessible, and updatable reference database, which could serve as a catalyst for future collaborations within the community. In conclusion, fNIRS shows potential for investigating cognitive processes in music, particularly in ecological contexts and with special populations, aligning with current research priorities in music cognition.

Cognitive Crescendo: How Music Shapes the Brain's Structure and Function

Music is a complex phenomenon with multiple brain areas and neural connections being implicated. Centuries ago, music was discovered as an efficient modality for psychological status enrichment and even for the treatment of multiple pathologies. Modern research investigations give a new avenue for music perception and the understanding of the underlying neurological mechanisms, using neuroimaging, especially magnetic resonance imaging. Multiple brain areas were depicted in the last decades as being of high value for music processing, and further analyses in the neuropsychology field uncover the implications in emotional and cognitive activities. Music listening improves cognitive functions such as memory, attention span, and behavioral augmentation. In rehabilitation, music-based therapies have a high rate of success for the treatment of depression and anxiety and even in neurological disorders such as regaining the body integrity after a stroke episode. Our review focused on the neurological and psychological implications of music, as well as presenting the significant clinical relevance of therapies using music.

Brightening the Study of Listening Effort with Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy: A Scoping Review

Listening effort is a long-standing area of interest in auditory cognitive neuroscience. Prior research has used multiple techniques to shed light on the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying listening during challenging conditions. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is growing in popularity as a tool for cognitive neuroscience research, and its recent advances offer many potential advantages over other neuroimaging modalities for research related to listening effort. This review introduces the basic science of fNIRS and its uses for auditory cognitive neuroscience. We also discuss its application in recently published studies on listening effort and consider future opportunities for studying effortful listening with fNIRS. After reading this article, the learner will know how fNIRS works and summarize its uses for listening effort research. The learner will also be able to apply this knowledge toward generation of future research in this area.

Background Music and Memory in Mild Cognitive Impairment: The Role of Interindividual Differences

BACKGROUND

Recent research has shown that background music may improve memory consolidation and retrieval. Nevertheless, in the clinical conditions preceding dementia such as mild cognitive impairment (MCI), there is no current evidence speaking to what effect background music during memory tasks has on impaired cognition.

OBJECTIVE

Across three experiments, we investigated if background music is able to improve memory performance, the most impacted cognitive domain in amnestic MCI.

METHODS

We tested the effect of background music by using a face recognition memory task in patients with amnestic MCI. In Experiment 1, we tested the effect of background music on memory when it was played solely during an encoding phase. In Experiment 2, we explored effects of background music when played during both encoding and recognition phases. In Experiment 3, we explored the role of musically induced arousal on memory.

RESULTS

The main finding from these three experiments was that background music played during a memory task did not improve or worsen participant performance. However, when exposed to high-arousal music, memory performance was predicted by individual mood regulation. For low-arousal music conditions, there was a negative relationship between rating scores for music pleasantness and performance on the memory task.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that the benefits of background music on memory in individuals with MCI are modulated by interindividual preferences towards music.

Effects of familiar music exposure on deliberate retrieval of remote episodic and semantic memories in healthy aging adults

Familiar music facilitates memory retrieval in adults with dementia. However, mechanisms behind this effect, and its generality, are unclear because of a lack of parallel work in healthy aging. Exposure to familiar music enhances spontaneous recall of memories directly cued by the music, but it is unknown whether such effects extend to deliberate recall more generally - e.g., to memories not directly linked to the music being played. It is also unclear whether familiar music boosts recall of specific episodes versus more generalised semantic memories, or whether effects are driven by domain-general mechanisms (e.g., improved mood). In a registered report study, we examined effects of familiar music on deliberate recall in healthy adults ages 65-80 years (N = 75) by presenting familiar music from earlier in life, unfamiliar music, and non-musical audio clips across three sessions. After each clip, we assessed free recall of remote memories for pre-selected events. Contrary to our hypotheses, we found no effects of music exposure on recall of prompted events, though familiar music evoked spontaneous memories most often. These results suggest that effects of familiar music on recall may be limited to memories specifically evoked in response to the music (Preprint and registered report protocol at https://osf.io/kjnwd/).

Reduced left dorsolateral prefrontal activation in problematic smartphone users during the Stroop task: An fNIRS study

Introduction

The widespread use of smartphones has triggered concern over problematic smartphone use (PSPU), as well as the need to elucidate its underlying mechanisms. However, the correlation between cortical activation and deficient inhibitory control in PSPU remains unclear.

Methods

This study examined inhibitory control using the color-word matching Stroop task and its cortical-activation responses using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in college students with PSPU (n = 56) compared with a control group (n = 54).

Results

At the behavioral level, Stroop interference, coupled with reaction time, was significantly greater in the PSPU group than in the control group. Changes in oxygenated hemoglobin (Oxy-Hb) signals associated with Stroop interference were significantly increased in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, left frontopolar area, and bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Moreover, the PSPU group had lower Oxy-Hb signal changes associated with Stroop interference in the left-DLPFC, relative to controls.

Discussion

These results provide first behavioral and neuroscientific evidence using event-related fNIRS method, to our knowledge, that college students with PSPU may have a deficit in inhibitory control associated with lower cortical activation in the left-DLPFC.

A Complex Combination Therapy for a Complex Disease-Neuroimaging Evidence for the Effect of Music Therapy in Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a disease characterized by clinical polymorphism: a combination of diverse syndromes defined by differences in structure, course and outcome. The etiology and pathogenesis of this mental disorder is still not completely understood, in spite of the achievements in the fields of neuroscience, genetics, neuroimaging and others. Different treatment strategies have been developed for patients with schizophrenia, but the search for new pharmacological agents continues with the mission of achieving a more effective control over the disease manifestations (positive and negative symptoms), improvement of the patients' social functioning and quality of life. The accumulated clinical experience has revealed that drug treatment and the inclusion in various rehabilitation programs and social skills training shows promising results in these patients. In recent years a plethora of evidence has been compiled regarding the role of music therapy as a possible alternative in the combination treatment of patients with mental disorders, schizophrenia included. Thus, the purpose of this review is to present the reader with a more detailed and science-based account of the beneficial effect of music therapy on the general wellbeing of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia. To fulfill our goal, we will focus mainly on the evidence provided by modern neuroimaging research.

Increase in Low-Frequency Oscillations in fNIRS as Cerebral Response to Auditory Stimulation with Familiar Music

Recognition of typical patterns of brain response to external stimuli using near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) may become a gateway to detecting covert consciousness in clinically unresponsive patients. This is the first fNIRS study on the cortical hemodynamic response to favorite music using a frequency domain approach. The aim of this study was to identify a possible marker of cognitive response in healthy subjects by investigating variations in the oscillatory signal of fNIRS in the spectral regions of low-frequency (LFO) and very-low-frequency oscillations (VLFO). The experiment consisted of two periods of exposure to preferred music, preceded and followed by a resting phase. Spectral power in the LFO region increased in all the subjects after the first exposure to music and decreased again in the subsequent resting phase. After the second music exposure, the increase in LFO spectral power was less distinct. Changes in LFO spectral power were more after first music exposure and the repetition-related habituation effect strongly suggest a cerebral origin of the fNIRS signal. Recognition of typical patterns of brain response to specific environmental stimulation is a required step for the concrete validation of a fNIRS-based diagnostic tool.

Do you listen to music while studying? A portrait of how people use music to optimize their cognitive performance

The effect of background music (BGM) on cognitive task performance is a popular topic. However, the evidence is not converging: experimental studies show mixed results depending on the task, the type of music used and individual characteristics. Here, we explored how people use BGM while optimally performing various cognitive tasks in everyday life, such as reading, writing, memorizing, and critical thinking. Specifically, the frequency of BGM usage, preferred music types, beliefs about the scientific evidence on BGM, and individual characteristics, such as age, extraversion and musical background were investigated. Although the results confirmed highly diverse strategies among individuals regarding when, how often, why and what type of BGM is used, we found several general tendencies: people tend to use less BGM when engaged in more difficult tasks, they become less critical about the type of BGM when engaged in easier tasks, and there is a negative correlation between the frequency of BGM and age, indicating that younger generations tend to use more BGM than older adults. The current and previous evidence are discussed in light of existing theories. Altogether, this study identifies essential variables to consider in future research and further forwards a theory-driven perspective in the field.

Musical components important for the Mozart K448 effect in epilepsy

There is growing evidence for the efficacy of music, specifically Mozart’s Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major (K448), at reducing ictal and interictal epileptiform activity. Nonetheless, little is known about the mechanism underlying this beneficial “Mozart K448 effect” for persons with epilepsy. Here, we measured the influence that K448 had on intracranial interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs) in sixteen subjects undergoing intracranial monitoring for refractory focal epilepsy. We found reduced IEDs during the original version of K448 after at least 30-s of exposure. Nonsignificant IED rate reductions were witnessed in all brain regions apart from the bilateral frontal cortices, where we observed increased frontal theta power during transitions from prolonged musical segments. All other presented musical stimuli were associated with nonsignificant IED alterations. These results suggest that the “Mozart K448 effect” is dependent on the duration of exposure and may preferentially modulate activity in frontal emotional networks, providing insight into the mechanism underlying this response. Our findings encourage the continued evaluation of Mozart’s K448 as a noninvasive, non-pharmacological intervention for refractory epilepsy.

The Mozart Effect on the Episodic Memory of Healthy Adults Is Null, but Low-Functioning Older Adults May Be an Exception

Literature on the effects of passive music listening on cognitive performance is mixed, showing negative, null or positive results depending on cognitive domain, age group, temporal relation between music and task (background music vs. music before task, the latter known as Mozart effect), or listener-dependent variables such as musical preference. Positive effects of background music on the two components of episodic memory – item and source memory - for verbal materials seem robust and age-independent, and thus deserve further attention. In the current study, we investigated two potential enhancers of music effects on episodic memory: stopping music before task performance (Mozart effect) to eliminate music-related distraction and using preferred music to maximize reward. We ran a main study on a sample of 51 healthy younger adults, along with a pilot study with 12 older adults, divided into low- vs. high functioning according to cognitive performance in a screening test. Against our expectations, Bayesian analyses showed strong evidence that music had no advantage over silence or environmental sounds in younger adults. Preferred music had no advantage either, consistent with the possibility that music-related reward had no impact on episodic memory. Among older adults, low- but not high-functioning participants’ item memory was improved by music – especially by non-preferred music - compared to silence. Our findings suggest that, in healthy adults, prior-to-task music may be less effective than background music in episodic memory enhancement despite decreased distraction, possibly because reward becomes irrelevant when music is stopped before the task begins. Our pilot findings on older adults raise the hypothesis that low-functioning older participants relate to prior-to-task auditory stimulation in deviant ways when it comes to episodic memory enhancement.

The impact of musical pleasure and musical hedonia on verbal episodic memory

Music listening is one of the most pleasurable activities in our life. As a rewarding stimulus, pleasant music could induce long-term memory improvements for the items encoded in close temporal proximity. In the present study, we behaviourally investigated (1) whether musical pleasure and musical hedonia enhance verbal episodic memory, and (2) whether such enhancement takes place even when the pleasant stimulus is not present during the encoding. Participants (N = 100) were asked to encode words presented in different auditory contexts (highly and lowly pleasant classical music, and control white noise), played before and during (N = 49), or only before (N = 51) the encoding. The Barcelona Music Reward Questionnaire was used to measure participants’ sensitivity to musical reward. 24 h later, participants’ verbal episodic memory was tested (old/new recognition and remember/know paradigm). Results revealed that participants with a high musical reward sensitivity present an increased recollection performance, especially for words encoded in a highly pleasant musical context. Furthermore, this effect persists even when the auditory stimulus is not concurrently present during the encoding of target items. Taken together, these findings suggest that musical pleasure might constitute a helpful encoding context able to drive memory improvements via reward mechanisms.

The impact of musical pleasure and musical hedonia on verbal episodic memory

Music listening is one of the most pleasurable activities in our life. As a rewarding stimulus, pleasant music could induce long-term memory improvements for the items encoded in close temporal proximity. In the present study, we behaviourally investigated (1) whether musical pleasure and musical hedonia enhance verbal episodic memory, and (2) whether such enhancement takes place even when the pleasant stimulus is not present during the encoding. Participants (N = 100) were asked to encode words presented in different auditory contexts (highly and lowly pleasant classical music, and control white noise), played before and during (N = 49), or only before (N = 51) the encoding. The Barcelona Music Reward Questionnaire was used to measure participants' sensitivity to musical reward. 24 h later, participants' verbal episodic memory was tested (old/new recognition and remember/know paradigm). Results revealed that participants with a high musical reward sensitivity present an increased recollection performance, especially for words encoded in a highly pleasant musical context. Furthermore, this effect persists even when the auditory stimulus is not concurrently present during the encoding of target items. Taken together, these findings suggest that musical pleasure might constitute a helpful encoding context able to drive memory improvements via reward mechanisms.

A Systematic Review of the Application of Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy to the Study of Cerebral Hemodynamics in Healthy Aging

Positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have shown that healthy aging is associated with functional brain deterioration that preferentially affects the prefrontal cortex. This article reviews the application of an alternative method, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), to the study of age-related changes in cerebral hemodynamics and factors that influence cerebral hemodynamics in the elderly population. We conducted literature searches in PudMed and PsycINFO, and selected only English original research articles that used fNIRS to study healthy individuals with a mean age of ≥ 55 years. All articles were published in peer-reviewed journals between 1977 and May 2019. We synthesized 114 fNIRS studies examining hemodynamic changes that occurred in the resting state and during the tasks of sensation and perception, motor control, semantic processing, word retrieval, attentional shifting, inhibitory control, memory, and emotion and motivation in healthy older adults. This review, which was not registered in a registry, reveals an age-related reduction in resting-state cerebral oxygenation and connectivity in the prefrontal cortex. It also shows that aging is associated with a reduction in functional hemispheric asymmetry and increased compensatory activity in the frontal lobe across multiple task domains. In addition, this article describes the beneficial effects of healthy lifestyles and the detrimental effects of cardiovascular disease risk factors on brain functioning among nondemented older adults. Limitations of this review include exclusion of gray and non-English literature and lack of meta-analysis. Altogether, the fNIRS literature provides some support for various neurocognitive aging theories derived from task-based PET and fMRI studies. Because fNIRS is relatively motion-tolerant and environmentally unconstrained, it is a promising tool for fostering the development of aging biomarkers and antiaging interventions.

Brain networks mediating the influence of background music on selective attention

Prevalent across societies and times, music has the ability to enhance attention, a property relevant to clinical applications, but the underlying brain mechanisms remain unknown. It is also unclear whether music produces similar or differential effects with advancing age. Here, we used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the influence of music exposure evoking four types of emotions on distinct attentional components measured with a modified attention network test, across 19 young (21 ± 2.6) and 33 old participants (72 ± 5.4). We then determined whether music-related effects differed across age groups and whether they were associated with particular acoustic features. Background music during selective attention requiring distractor conflict resolution was associated with faster response times and greater activations of fronto-parietal areas during happy and high-arousing music, whereas sad and low-valence music was associated with slower responses and greater occipital recruitment. Shifting and altering components of attention were unaffected. The influence of music on performance and brain networks was similar between age groups. These behavioral and neuroimaging results demonstrate the importance of affective music dimensions, particularly arousal, in enhancing selective attention processes. This study adds novel support to the benefits of music in the rehabilitation of attention functions.

Neurovascular Coupling by Functional Near Infra-Red Spectroscopy and Sport-Related Concussion in Retired Rugby Players: The UK Rugby Health Project

Aim: This study investigated cerebral hemodynamic responses to a neurovascular coupling (NVC) test in retired contact athletes with a history of repeated mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and in controls with no history of mTBI. Methods: Twenty-one retired rugby players (47.7 ± 12.9 year old; age at retirement: 38.5 ± 8.9 year; number of years playing rugby: 12.7 ± 3.7 year) with a history of three or more diagnosed concussions (8.9 ± 7.9 concussions per player) and 23 controls with no history of mTBI (46.5 ± 12.8 year old) performed a NVC test to detect task-orientated cerebral hemodynamic changes using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Results: The NVC showed a statistically significant reduction in the cerebral hemodynamic response in comparison to the control group which had a greater relative increase of oxyhemoglobin (O2Hb). There were reductions in left middle frontal gyrus (MFG) O2Hb (-0.015 ± 0.258 μM) and relative increases in deoxyhemoglobin (HHb; -0.004 ± 0.159 μM) in the same region for the mTBI group in comparison to the control group (-0.160 ± 0.311 μM; -0.121 ± 0.076 μM for O2Hb and HHb, respectively). The mTBI group induced a greater rate of oxygen extraction compared to the control group. Conclusion: This was the first study to examine cerebral hemodynamic changes in retired rugby players in response to a NVC test, and we found reduced cerebral hemodynamic responses in participants with a history of mTBI compared to controls. These results suggest altered cerebral metabolic demands in participants with a history of multiple head injuries. Further research is needed to ascertain an understanding of the changes in hemodynamics from playing into retirement.

Uso de la música para modular la memoria: Una revisión sistemática

La memoria es una función cognitiva que permite al ser humano adquirir, almacenar y recuperar información. Dentro de la literatura se identifican diversos factores que tienen la capacidad de modificar la capacidad mnémica, así como también afectar las diferentes fases de formación de la memoria. En este sentido el objetivo del presente artículo de revisión sistemática estuvo orientado a presentar los antecedentes en cuanto al efecto de la música, como entrenamiento musical prolongado, así como intervención focal, sobre esta función cognitiva. Se seleccionaron 39 artículos de investigación empírica extraídos de diversas bases de datos. A través de la evidencia presentada se concluye que las propuestas musicales representan una potencial herramienta para abordar no sólo el estudio de la memoria, sino también para la estimulación y rehabilitación de la misma.

An integrative cognitive rehabilitation using neurologic music therapy in multiple sclerosis: A pilot study

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease, affecting both the sensorimotor and cognitive systems. The typical pattern of cognitive impairment includes reduced speed of information processing, decreased phonological and semantic speech fluency, deficits in verbal and visual episodic memory, as well as attention and executive dysfunctions. We aimed to investigate the influence of the neurologic music therapy (NMT) on mood, motivation, emotion status, and cognitive functions in patients with MS.

METHODS

Thirty patients with MS were randomly divided in 2 groups: the control group (CG) undergoing conventional cognitive rehabilitation (CCR), 6 times a week for 8 weeks, and the experimental group (EG) undergoing CCR 3 times a week for 8 weeks plus NMT techniques, performed 3 times a week for 8 weeks. All the participants were submitted to the same amount of treatment. Each patient was evaluated before (baseline: T0) and immediately after the end of each training (T1).

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

We used as main outcome measure: the brief repeatable battery of neuropsychological test to assess various cognitive abilities; and the multiple sclerosis quality of life-54 (MSQoL-54).

RESULTS

Both the groups benefit from 8 weeks of CR. In particular, the EG got better results in cognitive function, with regard to selective reminding test long term storage (P < .000), long term retrieval (P = .007), and delayed recall of the 10/36 spatial recall test (P = .001), as compared with the CG. Moreover, the improvement in emotional status, motivation, mood and quality of life (with regard to the mental component; P < .000) was more evident in the EG.

CONCLUSIONS

NMT could be considered a complementary approach to enhance CCR in patients affected by MS.

Self-selected music-induced reduction of perceived exertion during moderate-intensity exercise does not interfere with post-exercise improvements in inhibitory control

Acute aerobic exercise improves inhibitory control (IC). This improvement is often associated with increases in perceived exertion during exercise. However, listening to music during aerobic exercise mitigates an exercise-induced increase in perceived exertion. Thus, it is hypothesized that such effects of music may interfere with exercise-induced improvements in IC. To test this hypothesis, we examined the effect of music on post-exercise IC improvements that were induced by moderate-intensity exercise. Fifteen healthy young men performed cycle ergometer exercise with music or non-music. The exercise was performed using a moderate-intensity of 60% of VO_{2 peak} for 30 min. The music condition was performed while listening to self-selected music. The non-music condition involved no music. To evaluate IC, the Stroop task was administered before exercise, immediately after exercise, and during the 30-min post-exercise recovery period. The rate of perceived exertion immediately before moderate-intensity exercise completed was significantly lower in music condition than in non-music condition. The IC significantly improved immediately after exercise and during the post-exercise recovery period compared to before exercise in both music and non-music conditions. The post-exercise IC improvements did not significantly differ between the two conditions. These findings indicate that self-selected music-induced mitigation of the increase in perceived exertion during moderate-intensity exercise dose not interfere with exercise-induced improvements in IC. Therefore, we suggest that listening to music may be a beneficial strategy in mitigating the increase in perceived exertion during aerobic exercise without decreasing the positive effects on IC.

Is music a memory booster in normal aging? The influence of emotion

Age-related differences in episodic memory have been explained by a decrement in strategic encoding implementation. It has been shown in clinical populations that music can be used during the encoding stage as a mnemonic strategy to learn verbal information. The effectiveness of this strategy remains equivocal in older adults (OA). Furthermore, the impact of the emotional valence of the music used has never been investigated in this context. Thirty OA and 24 young adults (YA) learned texts that were either set to music that was positively or negatively valenced, or spoken only. Immediate and delayed recalls were measured. Results showed that: (i) OA perform worse than YA in immediate and delayed recall; (ii) sung lyrics are better remembered than spoken ones in OA, but only when the associated music is positively-valenced; (iii) this pattern is observed regardless the retention delay. These findings support the benefit of a musical encoding on verbal learning in healthy OA and are consistent with the positivity effect classically reported in normal aging. Added to the potential applications in daily life, the results are discussed with respect to the theoretical hypotheses of the mechanisms underlying the advantage of musical encoding.

Music for the ageing brain: Cognitive, emotional, social, and neural benefits of musical leisure activities in stroke and dementia

Music engages an extensive network of auditory, cognitive, motor, and emotional processing regions in the brain. Coupled with the fact that the emotional and cognitive impact of music is often well preserved in ageing and dementia, music is a powerful tool in the care and rehabilitation of many ageing-related neurological diseases. In addition to formal music therapy, there has been a growing interest in self- or caregiver-implemented musical leisure activities or hobbies as a widely applicable means to support psychological wellbeing in ageing and in neurological rehabilitation. This article reviews the currently existing evidence on the cognitive, emotional, and neural benefits of musical leisure activities in normal ageing as well as in the rehabilitation and care of two of the most common and ageing-related neurological diseases: stroke and dementia.

Cognitive, emotional, and neural benefits of musical leisure activities in aging and neurological rehabilitation: A critical review

Music has the capacity to engage auditory, cognitive, motor, and emotional functions across cortical and subcortical brain regions and is relatively preserved in aging and dementia. Thus, music is a promising tool in the rehabilitation of aging-related neurological illnesses, such as stroke and Alzheimer disease. As the population ages and the incidence and prevalence of these illnesses rapidly increases, music-based interventions that are enjoyable and effective in the everyday care of the patients are needed. In addition to formal music therapy, musical leisure activities, such as music listening and singing, which patients can do on their own or with a caregiver, are a promising way to support psychological well-being during aging and in neurological rehabilitation. This review article provides an overview of current evidence on the cognitive, emotional, and neural effects of musical leisure activities both during normal aging and in the rehabilitation and care of stroke patients and people with dementia.

Nonverbal auditory working memory: Can music indicate the capacity?

Different working memory (WM) mechanisms that underlie words, tones, and timbres have been proposed in previous studies. In this regard, the present study developed a WM test with nonverbal sounds and compared it to the conventional verbal WM test. A total of twenty-five, non-music major, right-handed college students were presented with four different types of sounds (words, syllables, pitches, timbres) that varied from two to eight digits in length. Both accuracy and oxygenated hemoglobin (oxyHb) were measured. The results showed significant effects of number of targets on accuracy and sound type on oxyHb. A further analysis showed prefrontal asymmetry with pitch being processed by the right hemisphere (RH) and timbre by the left hemisphere (LH). These findings suggest a potential for employing musical sounds (i.e., pitch and timbre) as a complementary stimuli for conventional nonverbal WM tests, which can additionally examine its asymmetrical roles in the prefrontal regions.

The Influence of Music on Prefrontal Cortex during Episodic Encoding and Retrieval of Verbal Information: A Multichannel fNIRS Study

Music can be thought of as a complex stimulus able to enrich the encoding of an event thus boosting its subsequent retrieval. However, several findings suggest that music can also interfere with memory performance. A better understanding of the behavioral and neural processes involved can substantially improve knowledge and shed new light on the most efficient music-based interventions. Based on fNIRS studies on music, episodic encoding, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), this work aims to extend previous findings by monitoring the entire lateral PFC during both encoding and retrieval of verbal material. Nineteen participants were asked to encode lists of words presented with either background music or silence and subsequently tested during a free recall task. Meanwhile, their PFC was monitored using a 48-channel fNIRS system. Behavioral results showed greater chunking of words under the music condition, suggesting the employment of associative strategies for items encoded with music. fNIRS results showed that music provided a less demanding way of modulating both episodic encoding and retrieval, with a general prefrontal decreased activity under the music versus silence condition. This suggests that music-related memory processes rely on specific neural mechanisms and that music can positively influence both episodic encoding and retrieval of verbal information.

Play along: effects of music and social interaction on word learning

Learning new words is an increasingly common necessity in everyday life. External factors, among which music and social interaction are particularly debated, are claimed to facilitate this task. Due to their influence on the learner's temporal behavior, these stimuli are able to drive the learner's attention to the correct referent of new words at the correct point in time. However, do music and social interaction impact learning behavior in the same way? The current study aims to answer this question. Native German speakers (N = 80) were requested to learn new words (pseudo-words) during a contextual learning game. This learning task was performed alone with a computer or with a partner, with or without music. Results showed that music and social interaction had a different impact on the learner's behavior: Participants tended to temporally coordinate their behavior more with a partner than with music, and in both cases more than with a computer. However, when both music and social interaction were present, this temporal coordination was hindered. These results suggest that while music and social interaction do influence participants' learning behavior, they have a different impact. Moreover, impaired behavior when both music and a partner are present suggests that different mechanisms are employed to coordinate with the two types of stimuli. Whether one or the other approach is more efficient for word learning, however, is a question still requiring further investigation, as no differences were observed between conditions in a retrieval phase, which took place immediately after the learning session. This study contributes to the literature on word learning in adults by investigating two possible facilitating factors, and has important implications for situations such as music therapy, in which music and social interaction are present at the same time.

The cognitive effects of listening to background music on older adults: processing speed improves with upbeat music, while memory seems to benefit from both upbeat and downbeat music

Background music refers to any music played while the listener is performing another activity. Most studies on this effect have been conducted on young adults, while little attention has been paid to the presence of this effect in older adults. Hence, this study aimed to address this imbalance by assessing the impact of different types of background music on cognitive tasks tapping declarative memory and processing speed in older adults. Overall, background music tended to improve performance over no music and white noise, but not always in the same manner. The theoretical and practical implications of the empirical findings are discussed.