A Brief Review of the Application of Neuroergonomics in Skilled Cognition During Expert Sports Performance

Challenges and perspectives with understanding the concept of mental fatigue

Mental fatigue is referred to as a psychophysiological or neurobiological state caused by prolonged periods of demanding cognitive activity. Sport and exercise science research studies have investigated the effects of experimentally induced mental fatigue on cognitive performance, with mixed results. It has been suggested that negative effects of mental fatigue on cognition performance in laboratory studies could translate to impaired sport performance. However, it remains unclear if impairments in sport performance are due to mental fatigue and how mental fatigue may differ from physical fatigue. Fatigue is well understood as a complex multifactorial construct involving interactions between physiological and neuropsychological responses across brain regions. It may be prudent for researchers to return to the origins of fatigue and cognition before attempting to connect mental fatigue and sport cognition. This article reviews the concept of mental fatigue, its mechanisms and neuroanatomical basis, models of cognition relevant to sports science, investigates how mental fatigue may influence cognition, and suggests future research directions. Mental fatigue as a construct separated from fatigue could be an oversight that has hindered the development of our understanding of mental fatigue. Future sports science research could work to enhance our knowledge of our definitions of fatigue.

Neuroimaging and perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport: A narrative review of research and future directions

Perceptual-cognitive expertise is crucial in domains that require rapid extraction of information for anticipation (e.g., sport, aviation, warfighting). Yet, published reports on the neuroscience of perceptual-cognitive expertise in such dynamic performance environments focus almost exclusively on biological motion processing (i.e., action observation network), leaving gaps in knowledge about the neural mechanisms underlying other frequently cited perceptual-cognitive skills, such as pattern recognition, the use of contextual priors, and global processing. In this paper, we provide a narrative review of research on the neural mechanisms underlying perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport, a domain where individuals possess highly specialized perceptual-cognitive skills (i.e., expertise) that enable successful performance in dynamic environments. Additionally, we discuss how work from domains with more static, predictable stimuli for perception and decision-making (e.g., radiology, chess) can enhance understanding of the neuroscience of expertise in sport. In future, efforts are needed to address the neural mechanisms underpinning less studied perceptual-cognitive skills (i.e., pattern recognition, contextual priors, global processing) and to explore how experts prioritize these skills within different contexts, thereby enhancing our understanding of perceptual-cognitive expertise across numerous professional domains.

What happens in the prefrontal cortex? Cognitive processing of novel and familiar stimuli in soccer: An exploratory fNIRS study

The importance of both general and sport-specific perceptual-cognitive abilities in soccer players has been investigated in several studies. Although these perceptual-cognitive skills could contribute significantly to soccer players' expertise, the underlying cortical mechanisms have not been clarified yet. Examining activity changes in the prefrontal cortex under different cognitive demands may help to better understand the underlying mechanisms of sports expertise. The aim of this study was to analyse the prefrontal activity of soccer experts during general and sport-specific cognitive tasks. For this purpose, 39 semi-professional soccer players performed four perceptual-cognitive tests, two of which assessed general cognition, the other two assessed sport-specific cognition. Since soccer is a movement-intensive sport, two tests were performed in motion. While performing cognitive tests, prefrontal activity was recorded using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) (NIRSport, NIRx Medical Technologies, USA). Differences of prefrontal activity in general and sport-specific cognitive tasks were analysed using paired t-tests. The results showed significant increases in prefrontal activity during general cognitive tests (novel stimuli) compared to sport-specific tests (familiar stimuli). The comparatively lower prefrontal activity change during sport-specific cognition might be due to learned automatisms of experts in this field. These results seem in line with previous findings on novel and automated cognition, "repetition suppression theory" and "neural efficiency theory". Furthermore, the different cortical processes could be caused by altered prefrontal structures of experts and might represent a decisive factor for expertise in team sports. However, further research is needed to clarify the prefrontal involvement on expertise in general and sport-specific cognition.

Evaluating the effects of PeakATP® supplementation on visuomotor reaction time and cognitive function following high-intensity sprint exercise

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 14-days adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) supplementation (PeakATP®) on reaction time (RT), multiple object tracking speed (MOT), mood and cognition. Twenty adults (22.3 ± 4.4 yrs., 169.9 ± 9.5 cm, 78.7 ± 14.6 kg) completed two experimental trials in a double-blind, counter-balanced, crossover design. Subjects were randomized to either PeakATP® (400 mg) or placebo (PLA) and supplemented for 14-days prior to each trial. During each trial, subjects completed a three-minute all-out test on a cycle ergometer (3MT), with measures of visuomotor RT [Dynavision D2 Proactive (Mode A) and Reactive (Mode B) tasks], MOT (Neurotracker), mood (Profile of Mood States Questionnaire; POMS) and cognition (Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics; ANAM) occurring before (PRE), immediately post (IP) and 60 min post-3MT (60P). Subjects ingested an acute dose of the assigned supplement 30 min prior to completing PRE assessments for each trial. Trials were separated by a 14-day washout period. PeakATP® significantly attenuated declines in hits (p = 0.006, ηp2 = 0.235) and average RT (AvgRT, p = 0.006, ηp2 = 0.236) in Mode A, significantly improved AvgRT (p = 0.039, ηp2 = 0.174) in Mode B, and significantly reduced the total number of misses (p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.343) in Mode B. No differences between treatments were noted for MOT, POMS or ANAM variables. In conclusion, these results indicate that PeakATP® maintains proactive RT and improves reactive RT following high-intensity sprint exercise suggesting that supplemental ATP may mitigate exercise induced cognitive dysfunction.

Ecological validity in exercise neuroscience research: A systematic investigation

The contribution of cortical processes to adaptive motor behaviour is of great interest in the field of exercise neuroscience. Next to established criteria of objectivity, reliability and validity, ecological validity refers to the concerns of whether measurements and behaviour in research settings are representative of the real world. Because exercise neuroscience investigations using mobile electroencephalography are oftentimes conducted in laboratory settings under controlled environments, methodological approaches may interfere with the idea of ecological validity. This review utilizes an original ecological validity tool to assess the degree of ecological validity in current exercise neuroscience research. A systematic literature search was conducted to identify articles investigating cortical dynamics during goal-directed sports movement. To assess ecological validity, five elements (environment, stimulus, response, body and mind) were assessed on a continuum of artificiality-naturality and simplicity-complexity. Forty-seven studies were included in the present review. Results indicate lowest average ratings for the element of environment. The elements stimulus, body and mind had mediocre ratings, and the element of response had the highest overall ratings. In terms of the type of sport, studies that assessed closed-skill indoor sports had the highest ratings, whereas closed-skill outdoor sports had the lowest overall rating. Our findings identify specific elements that are lacking in ecological validity and areas of improvement in current exercise neuroscience literature. Future studies may potentially increase ecological validity by moving from reductionist, artificial environments towards complex, natural environments and incorporating real-world sport elements such as adaptive responses and competition.

Validity, Reliability, and Sensitivity to Exercise-Induced Fatigue of a Customer-Friendly Device for the Measurement of the Brain's Direct Current Potential

Valenzuela, PL, Sánchez-Martínez, G, Torrontegi, E, Vázquez-Carrión, J, Montalvo, Z, and Kara, O. Validity, reliability, and sensitivity to exercise-induced fatigue of a customer-friendly device for the measurement of the brain's direct current potential. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-This study aimed to determine the validity, reliability, and sensitivity to exercise-induced fatigue of the brain's direct current (DC) potential measured with a commercially available and customer-friendly electroencephalography (EEG) device and Omegawave (OW). The study was composed of 3 different experiments as follows: (a) we compared the DC potential values obtained simultaneously in 31 subjects with both OW and a research-quality EEG system; (b) 3 consecutive DC potential measurements with OW were taken at rest on the same day in 25 subjects for reliability analyses; and (c) sensitivity to fatigue was assessed in 9 elite badminton players through the measurement of the DC potential with OW-as well as other fatigue-related measures (e.g., Hooper's index, heart rate variability, jump ability, and simple and complex reaction times)-24 hours after both a day of rest and of strenuous exercise, which were performed in a crossover and randomized design. The DC potential measured with OW was reliable (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.97) and significantly correlated to that of EEG (r = 0.55, p = 0.001), although significant differences were observed between systems (p < 0.001). Compared with the rest day, strenuous exercise resulted in an impaired Hooper's index (p = 0.010) and jump ability (p = 0.008), longer simple (p = 0.038) and complex reaction times (p = 0.011), and a trend toward sympathetic dominance (standard deviation of normal to normal R-R intervals, p = 0.042; root mean square of differences between consecutive R-R intervals, p = 0.068). In turn, no significant differences were found between sessions for the DC potential (p = 0.173). In summary, the DC potential measured with OW was reliable and modestly correlated to that measured with EEG, but no differences were observed in response to the delayed fatigue (after 24 hours) elicited by strenuous exercise in elite athletes.

New Directions in Exercise Prescription: Is There a Role for Brain-Derived Parameters Obtained by Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy?

In the literature, it is well established that regular physical exercise is a powerful strategy to promote brain health and to improve cognitive performance. However, exact knowledge about which exercise prescription would be optimal in the setting of exercise–cognition science is lacking. While there is a strong theoretical rationale for using indicators of internal load (e.g., heart rate) in exercise prescription, the most suitable parameters have yet to be determined. In this perspective article, we discuss the role of brain-derived parameters (e.g., brain activity) as valuable indicators of internal load which can be beneficial for individualizing the exercise prescription in exercise–cognition research. Therefore, we focus on the application of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), since this neuroimaging modality provides specific advantages, making it well suited for monitoring cortical hemodynamics as a proxy of brain activity during physical exercise.