Biometal Dyshomeostasis and Toxic Metal Accumulations in the Development of Alzheimer's Disease

Biophysical investigation of metal-substituted D-2-hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase

D-2-Hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 (EC: 1.1.99.39; Uniprot ID: Q9I6H4) is a metallo-flavoenzyme that utilizes Zn2+ and FAD to catalyze the conversion of D-2-hydroxyglutarate to 2-ketoglutarate. The enzyme utilizes Co2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, and Cd2+ as alternative metal cofactors. To study how metal substitution impacts flavin properties, the enzyme was purified with different metal ions or treated with EDTA to generate the metallo-apoenzyme (EFAD-apo). Fluorescence assays revealed distinct metal ion binding sites in the enzyme: concentrations of metal ions up to ∼0.40 mM increased flavin fluorescence at 531 nm, whereas concentrations above ∼0.40 mM quenched flavin fluorescence with a 2-6 nm bathochromic shift. Concomitantly, enzyme-specific activity exhibited a sigmoidal increase, indicating a metal-induced conformational change. CD spectra showed no significant shifts at ∼209 and ∼220 nm but a ≤ 2-fold increase in mean residue ellipticity compared to EFAD-apo. Metal binding also caused a 2-9 nm bathochromic shift in flavin absorption and emission maxima, indicating stabilization of the excited-state flavin π-electron system. The binding of Zn2+, Co2+, Mn2+, or Cd2+ to the enzyme increased by ∼1 unit of the pKa value of the flavin N3 atom compared to the EFAD-apo, consistent with metal-hydrate perturbing flavin electronic properties. In contrast, Ni2+ binding decreased the pKa value, consistent with flavin N3 atom deprotonating before the Ni2+-hydrate in the enzyme active site. These findings reveal that metal ion substitution has minimal impact on the electronic properties of the flavin and the overall structural integrity of the enzyme, highlighting the potential use of metal-substituted variants of the enzyme as biomimetic catalysts.

Metal ion formulations for diabetic wound healing: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Metals are vital in human physiology, which not only act as enzyme catalysts in the processes of superoxide dismutase and glucose phosphorylation, but also affect the redox process, osmotic adjustment, metabolism and neural signals. However, metal imbalances can lead to diseases such as diabetes, which is marked by chronic hyperglycemia and affects wound healing. The hyperglycemic milieu of diabetes impairs wound healing, posing significant challenges to patient quality of life. Wound healing encompasses a complex cascade of hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling phases, which are susceptible to disruption in hyperglycemic conditions. In recent decades, metals have emerged as critical facilitators of wound repair by enhancing antimicrobial properties (e.g., iron and silver), providing angiogenic stimulation (copper), promoting antioxidant activity and growth factor synthesis (zinc), and supporting wound closure (calcium and magnesium). Consequently, research has pivoted towards the development of metal ion-based therapeutics, including innovative formulations such as nano-hydrogels, nano-microneedle dressings, and microneedle patches. Prepared by combining macromolecular materials such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid and sodium alginate with metals, aiming at improving the management of diabetic wounds. This review delineates the roles of key metals in human physiology and evaluates the application of metal ions in diabetic wound management strategies.

Sodium Thiosulfate: An Innovative Multi-Target Repurposed Treatment Strategy for Late-Onset Alzheimer's Disease

Late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) is a chronic, multifactorial, and progressive neurodegenerative disease that associates with aging and is highly prevalent in our older population (≥65 years of age). This hypothesis generating this narrative review will examine the important role for the use of sodium thiosulfate (STS) as a possible multi-targeting treatment option for LOAD. Sulfur is widely available in our environment and is responsible for forming organosulfur compounds that are known to be associated with a wide range of biological activities in the brain. STS is known to have (i) antioxidant and (ii) anti-inflammatory properties; (iii) chelation properties for calcium and the pro-oxidative cation metals such as iron and copper; (iv) donor properties for hydrogen sulfide production; (v) possible restorative properties for brain endothelial-cell-derived bioavailable nitric oxide. Thus, it becomes apparent that STS has the potential for neuroprotection and neuromodulation and may allow for an attenuation of the progressive nature of neurodegeneration and impaired cognition in LOAD. STS has been successfully used to prevent cisplatin oxidative-stress-induced ototoxicity in the treatment of head and neck and solid cancers, cyanide and arsenic poisoning, and fungal skin diseases. Most recently, intravenous STS has become part of the treatment plan for calciphylaxis globally due to vascular calcification and ischemia-induced skin necrosis and ulceration. Side effects have been minimal with reports of metabolic acidosis and increased anion gap; as with any drug treatment, there is also the possibility of allergic reactions, possible long-term osteoporosis from animal studies to date, and minor side-effects of nausea, headache, and rhinorrhea if infused too rapidly. While STS poorly penetrates the intact blood-brain barrier(s) (BBBs), it could readily penetrate BBBs that are dysfunctional and disrupted to deliver its neuroprotective and neuromodulating effects in addition to its ability to penetrate the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier of the choroid plexus. Novel strategies such as the future use of nano-technology may be helpful in allowing an increased entry of STS into the brain.

Associations between multiple metals exposure and cognitive function in the middle-aged and older adults from China: A cross-sectional study

The rapidly rising risk of cognitive decline is a serious challenge for the elderly. As the wide-distributed environmental chemicals, the effects of metals exposure on cognitive function have attracted much attention, but the results remain inclusive. This study aimed to investigate the roles of multiple metals co-exposure on cognition. We included a total of 6112 middle-aged and older participants, detected their plasma levels of 23 metals by using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and assessed their cognitive function by using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). The results showed that increased plasma levels of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) were positively associated with MMSE score, but the increased levels of nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb) were associated with decreased MMSE score (all FDR < 0.05). Subjects exposed to both high levels of Ni and Pb showed the lowest MMSE score [β (95% CI) = -0.310 (-0.519, -0.100)], suggesting that Ni and Pb had a synergistic toxic effect on cognitive function. In addition, the hazardous roles of Ni and Pb were mainly found among subjects with low plasma level of Zn, but were not significant among those with high-Zn level [Ni: β (95% CI) = -0.281 (-0.546, -0.015) vs. -0.146 (-0.351, 0.058); Pb: β (95% CI) = -0.410 (-0.651, -0.169) vs. -0.060 (-0.275, 0.155)], which suggested that Zn could attenuate the adverse effects of Pb and Ni on cognitive function. The cognitive function was gradually decreased among subjects with increased number of adverse exposures to the above four metals (Ptrend < 0.001). In conclusion, our findings revealed the individual, interactive, and combined effects of Fe, Ni, Pb, and Zn on cognitive function, which may provide new perspectives on cognitive protection, but further prospective cohort studies and biological researches are needed to validate these findings.

Urinary Metal Levels, Cognitive Test Performance, and Dementia in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

Importance

Metals are established neurotoxicants, but evidence of their association with cognitive performance at low chronic exposure levels is limited.

Objective

To investigate the association of urinary metal levels, individually and as a mixture, with cognitive tests and dementia diagnosis, including effect modification by apolipoprotein ε4 allele (APOE4).

Design, Setting, and Participants

The multicenter prospective cohort Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) was started from July 2000 to August 2002, with follow-up through 2018. A total of 6303 MESA participants were included. Data analysis was performed from October 12, 2023, to June 13, 2024.

Exposure

Urine samples were collected at baseline (2000-2002), and arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, tungsten, uranium, and zinc levels were measured in 2020-2022.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Digit Symbol Coding (DSC) (n = 3819) (possible score range, 0-133), Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI) (n = 3918) (possible score range, 0-100), and Digit Span (DS) (n = 4176) (possible score range, 0-30) cognitive tests were administered in 2010-2012; higher scores of each test indicate increasing levels of positive response.

Results

A total of 6303 participants were followed up for dementia diagnosis through 2018. The median age at baseline was 60 (IQR, 53-70) years, and 3303 participants (52.4%) were female. The median cognitive scores were 51 (IQR, 38-64) for DSC, 90 (IQR, 84-95) for CASI, and 15 (IQR, 12-18) for DS. There were 559 cases of dementia through the follow-up period. Inverse associations with DSC were identified: mean differences in z scores per IQR increase in metal levels were -0.03 (95% CI, -0.07 to 0.00) for arsenic, -0.05 (95% CI, -0.09 to -0.004) for cobalt, -0.05 (95% CI, -0.07 to -0.02) for copper, -0.04 (95% CI, -0.08 to -0.001) for uranium, and -0.03 (95% CI, -0.06 to -0.01) for zinc. Among 1058 APOE4 carriers, manganese was also inversely associated with DSC. The joint mean difference of DSC comparing percentile 95th with the 25th of the 9-metal mixture was -0.30 (95% CI, -0.47 to -0.14) for APOE4 carriers and -0.10 (95% CI, -0.19 to -0.01) for noncarriers. Arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, tungsten, uranium, and zinc were individually associated with dementia, with hazard ratios per IQR of metal ranging from 1.15 (95% CI, 1.03-1.29) for tungsten to 1.46 (95% CI, 1.06-2.02) for uranium. The joint hazard ratio of dementia comparing percentiles 95th with the 25th of the 9-metal mixture was 1.71 (95% CI, 1.24-3.89), with no significant difference by APOE4 status.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this study, participants with higher concentrations of metals in their urine, compared with those with lower concentrations, had worse performance on cognitive tests and greater likelihood of developing dementia. The findings of this multicenter multiethnic cohort study might inform screening and potential interventions for prevention of dementia based on individuals' metal exposure levels and genetic profiles.

Evaluation of hydrazone and N-acylhydrazone derivatives of vitamin B6 and pyridine-4-carbaldehyde as potential drugs against Alzheimer's disease

The growing prevalence of Alzheimer's disease calls for a drug that can simultaneously act towards several targets involved in the pathophysiology of the disease. In our study, we evaluated the potential of hydrazone and N-acylhydrazone derivatives of vitamin B6 and pyridine-4-carbaldehyde to be used as multi-target directed ligands targeting cholinergic system by inhibiting acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase, lowering the accumulation of β-amyloid plaques by inhibiting both the β-secretase activity and amyloid self-aggregation, and maintaining the biometal balance by chelating certain biometals. Our results showed that all of the tested hydrazones were potent inhibitors of human cholinesterases with inhibition constants (Ki) in micromolar range able to lower the activity of β-secretase, inhibit amyloid aggregation, chelate biometals and act as antioxidants. Also, most of them were estimated to be able to cross the blood-brain barrier by passive transport and to be absorbed in human intestines as well as with moderate metabolic stability in liver microsomes.

Novel 1,2,4-triazole derivatives containing the naphthalene moiety as selective butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors: Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is considered a promising therapeutic target for treating Alzheimer's disease due to the increase in the levels and activity of BChE in the late stage of the disease. In this study, a series of novel 1,2,4-triazole derivatives bearing the naphthalene moiety linked to the benzothiazole, thiazole, and phenyl scaffolds via amid chain were designed and synthesized as potential and selective BChE inhibitors. The results of the inhibitory activity studies revealed that most of these compounds exhibited significant inhibitor potency on BChE. Compounds 35a (0.025 ± 0.01 μM) and 37a (0.035 ± 0.01 μM) displayed the most potent inhibitory activity, with excellent selectivity against BChE over acetylcholinesterase (SIBChE, 23,686 and 16,936, respectively) among the target compounds. The kinetics studies revealed that these compounds behaved with noncompetitive BChE inhibitors. Molecular docking studies indicated that 35a and 37a fit well into the active side of BChE. In addition, 35a and 37a also had the lowest cytotoxicity for human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y), potential antioxidant capacity, moderate inhibition potency on amyloid-β1-42 aggregation, and significant neuroprotective effect against SH-SY5Y cell injury induced by H2O2 and amyloid-β1-42. All results suggest that these compounds might be considered as promising new lead compounds in the drug discovery process for the treatment of late-stage Alzheimer's disease.

Bifunctional Copper Chelators Capable of Reducing Aβ Aggregation and Aβ-Induced Oxidative Stress

Five bifunctional copper chelating agents, Alz-(1-5), designed to prevent beta-amyloid (Aβ) aggregation, were synthesized, and the leader compound (Alz-5) was chosen. Alz-5 acts as a bifunctional chelator that can interact with various Aβ aggregates and reduce their neurotoxicity. Reactive oxygen species measurements provided by the Pt-nanoelectrode technique in single Aβ42-affected human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells revealed significant antioxidant activity of Alz-5. AFM data obtained on Aβ42 fibrils clearly indicate the antiaggregating property of Alz-5. To gain insights into the changes in the physiomechanical properties of Aβ42-affected cells, as well as in order to evaluate the antiaggregating ability of Alz-5, Young's modulus mapping on living SH-SY5Y cells affected consequently by Aβ42 and Alz-5 was conducted, and the ability of Alz-5 to decrease cell rigidity induced by Aβ42 was indisputably proven. Low cell toxicity and antioxidating properties, in conjunction with AFM and SICM-based biophysical provided on Aβ42-affected SH-SY5Y cells, support Alz-5 as a potential inhibitor of Aβ aggregation.

Putative retina metal/metalloid-binding proteins: molecular functions, biological processes and retina disease associations

The mammalian retina contains high amounts of metals/metalloid-selenium. Their dyshomeostases are associated with certain retinal diseases. We carried out this bioinformatics study to identify the relationships between putative retinal metal/selenium binding proteins, their molecular functions, and biological processes. Identification of putative mouse metal/selenium binding proteins was based on known binding motifs, domains, patterns, and profiles. Annotations were obtained from Uniprot keywords 'metal binding', 'metal ion co-factors', 'selenium proteins'. Protein functions were estimated by associative frequency with key words in UniProt annotations. The raw data of five mouse proteomics PRIDE datasets (available to date) were downloaded and processed with Mascot against the mouse taxa of Uniprot (SwissProt/Trembl) and MaxQuant (version 1.6.10.43) for qualitative and quantitative datasets, respectively. Clinically relevant variants were evaluated using archives and aggregated information in ClinVar. The 438 proteins common to all the retina proteomics datasets were used to identify over-represented Gene Ontology categories. The putative mouse retinal metal/metalloid binding proteins identified are mainly involved in: (1) metabolic processes (enzymes), (2) homeostasis, (3) transport (vesicle mediated, transmembrane, along microtubules), (4) cellular localization, (5) regulation of signalling and exocytosis, (6) organelle organization, (7) (de)phosphorylation, and (8) complex assembly. Twenty-one proteins were identified as involved in response to light stimulus and/or visual system development. An association of metal ion binding proteins rhodopsin, photoreceptor specific nuclear receptor, calcium binding protein 4 with disease-related mutations in inherited retinal conditions was identified, where the mutations affected an area within or in close proximity to the metal binding site or domain. These findings suggest a functional role for the putative metal/metalloid binding site in retinal proteins in certain retinal disorders.

Multimechanism biological profiling of tetrahydro-β-carboline analogues as selective HDAC6 inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

With the intensive research on the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), inhibition of HDAC6 appears to be a potential therapeutic approach for AD. In this paper, a series of tetrahydro-β-carboline derivatives with hydroxamic acid group were fast synthesized. Among all, the most potent 15 selectively inhibited HDAC6 with IC50 of 15.2 nM and markedly increased acetylated alpha-tubulin levels. In cellular assay, 15 showed excellent neurotrophic effect by increasing the expression of GAP43 and Beta-3 tubulin markers. Besides, 15 showed neuroprotective effects in PC12 or SH-SY5Y cells against H2O2 and 6-OHDA injury through activation of Nrf2, catalase and Prx II, and significantly reduced H2O2-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In vivo, 15 significantly attenuated zebrafish anxiety-like behaviour and memory deficits in a SCOP-induced zebrafish model of AD. To sum up, multifunctional 15 might be a good lead to develop novel tetrahydrocarboline-based agents for the treatment of AD.

Stable potassium isotope ratios in human blood serum towards biomarker development in Alzheimer's disease

The Alzheimer's disease (AD)-affected brain purges K with concurrently increasing serum K, suggesting brain-blood K transferal. Here, natural stable K isotope ratios-δ41K-of human serum samples were characterized in an AD biomarker pilot study (plus two paired Li-heparin and potassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid [K-EDTA] plasma samples). AD serum was found to have a significantly lower mean δ41K relative to controls. To mechanistically explore this change, novel ab initio calculations (density functional theory) of relative K isotope compositions between hydrated K+ and organically bound K were performed, identifying hydrated K+ as isotopically light (lower δ41K) compared to organically bound K. Taken together with literature, serum δ41K and density functional theory results are consistent with efflux of hydrated K+ from the brain to the bloodstream, manifesting a measurable decrease in serum δ41K. These data introduce serum δ41K for further investigation as a minimally invasive AD biomarker, with cost, scalability, and stability advantages over current techniques.

Cadmium neurotoxicity: Insights into behavioral effect and neurodegenerative diseases

Cadmium (Cd) induced neurotoxicity has become a growing concern due to its potential adverse effects on the Central Nervous System. Cd is a Heavy Metal (HM) that is released into the environment, through several industrial processes. It poses a risk to the health of the community by polluting air, water, and soil. Cd builds up in the brain and other neural tissues, raising concerns about its effect on the nervous system due to its prolonged biological half-life. Cd can enter into the neurons, hence increasing the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in them and impairing their antioxidant defenses. Cd disrupts the Calcium (Ca2+) balance in neurons, affects the function of the mitochondria, and triggers cell death pathways. As a result of these pathways, the path to the development of many neurological diseases affected by environmental factors, especially Cd, such as Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is facilitated. There are cognitive deficits associated with long exposure to Cd. Memory disorders are present in both animals and humans. Cd alters the brain's function and performance in critical periods. There are lifelong consequences of Cd exposure during critical brain development stages. The susceptibility to neurotoxic effects is increased by interactions with a variety of risk factors. Cd poses risks to neuronal function and behavior, potentially contributing to neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease (PD) and AD as well as cognitive issues. This article offers a comprehensive overview of Cd-induced neurotoxicity, encompassing risk assessment, adverse effect levels, and illuminating intricate pathways.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Ferulic Acid-Piperazine Derivatives Targeting Pathological Hallmarks of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent cause of dementia and is characterized by low levels of acetyl and butyrylcholine, increased oxidative stress, inflammation, accumulation of metals, and aggregations of Aβ and tau proteins. Current treatments for AD provide only symptomatic relief without impacting the pathological hallmarks of the disease. In our ongoing efforts to develop naturally inspired novel multitarget molecules for AD, through extensive medicinal chemistry efforts, we have developed 13a, harboring the key functional groups to provide not only symptomatic relief but also targeting oxidative stress, able to chelate iron, inhibiting NLRP3, and Aβ1-42 aggregation in various AD models. 13a exhibited promising anticholinesterase activity against AChE (IC50 = 0.59 ± 0.19 μM) and BChE (IC50 = 5.02 ± 0.14 μM) with excellent antioxidant properties in DPPH assay (IC50 = 5.88 ± 0.21 μM) over ferulic acid (56.49 ± 0.62 μM). The molecular docking and dynamic simulations further corroborated the enzyme inhibition studies and confirmed the stability of these complexes. Importantly, in the PAMPA-BBB assay, 13a turned out to be a promising molecule that can efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier. Notably, 13a also exhibited iron-chelating properties. Furthermore, 13a effectively inhibited self- and metal-induced Aβ1-42 aggregation. It is worth mentioning that 13a demonstrated no symptom of cytotoxicity up to 30 μM concentration in PC-12 cells. Additionally, 13a inhibited the NLRP3 inflammasome and mitigated mitochondrial-induced reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial membrane potential damage triggered by LPS and ATP in HMC-3 cells. 13a could effectively reduce mitochondrial and cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the Drosophila model of AD. Finally, 13a was found to be efficacious in reversing memory impairment in a scopolamine-induced AD mouse model in the in vivo studies. In ex vivo assessments, 13a notably modulates the levels of superoxide, catalase, and malondialdehyde along with AChE and BChE. These findings revealed that 13a holds promise as a potential candidate for further development in AD management.

Heavy metals toxicity on epigenetic modifications in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD)

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive decline in cognitive ability and behavior which eventually disrupts daily activities. AD has no cure and the progression rate varies unlikely. Among various causative factors, heavy metals are reported to be a significant hazard in AD pathogenesis. Metal-induced neurodegeneration has been focused globally with thorough research to unravel the mechanistic insights in AD. Recently, heavy metals suggested to play an important role in epigenetic alterations which might provide evidential results on AD pathology. Epigenetic modifications are known to play towards novel therapeutic approaches in treating AD. Though many studies focus on epigenetics and heavy metal implications in AD, there is a lack of research on heavy metal influence on epigenetic toxicity in neurological disorders. The current review aims to elucidate the plausible role of cadmium (Cd), iron (Fe), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), and lithium (Li) metals on epigenetic factors and the increase in amyloid beta and tau phosphorylation in AD. Also, the review discusses the common methods of heavy metal detection to implicate in AD pathogenesis. Hence, from this review, we can extend the need for future research on identifying the mechanistic behavior of heavy metals on epigenetic toxicity and to develop diagnostic and therapeutic markers in AD.

Lead optimization based design, synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation of quinazoline derivatives as multi-targeting agents for Alzheimer's disease treatment

The complexity and multifaceted nature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) have driven us to further explore quinazoline scaffolds as multi-targeting agents for AD treatment. The lead optimization strategy was utilized in designing of new series of derivatives (AK-1 to AK-14) followed by synthesis, characterization, and pharmacological evaluation against human cholinesterase's (hChE) and β-secretase (hBACE-1) enzymes. Amongst them, compounds AK-1, AK-2, and AK-3 showed good and significant inhibitory activity against both hAChE and hBACE-1 enzymes with favorable permeation across the blood-brain barrier. The most active compound AK-2 revealed significant propidium iodide (PI) displacement from the AChE-PAS region and was non-neurotoxic against SH-SY5Y cell lines. The lead molecule (AK-2) also showed Aβ aggregation inhibition in a self- and AChE-induced Aβ aggregation, Thioflavin-T assay. Further, compound AK-2 significantly ameliorated Aβ-induced cognitive deficits in the Aβ-induced Morris water maze rat model and demonstrated a significant rescue in eye phenotype in the Aꞵ-phenotypic drosophila model of AD. Ex-vivo immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis on hippocampal rat brains showed reduced Aβ and BACE-1 protein levels. Compound AK-2 suggested good oral absorption via pharmacokinetic studies and displayed a good and stable ligand-protein interaction in in-silico molecular modeling analysis. Thus, the compound AK-2 can be regarded as a lead molecule and should be investigated further for the treatment of AD.

Multitarget action of Benzothiazole-piperazine small hybrid molecule against Alzheimer's disease: In silico, In vitro, and In vivo investigation

A novel small molecule based on benzothiazole-piperazine has been identified as an effective multi-target-directed ligand (MTDL) against Alzheimer's disease (AD). Employing a medicinal chemistry approach, combined with molecular docking, MD simulation, and binding free energy estimation, compound 1 emerged as a potent MTDL against AD. Notably, compound 1 demonstrated efficient binding to both AChE and Aβ1-42, involving crucial molecular interactions within their active sites. It displayed a binding free energy (ΔGbind) -18.64± 0.16 and -16.10 ± 0.18 kcal/mol against AChE and Aβ1-42, respectively. In-silico findings were substantiated through rigorous in vitro and in vivo studies. In vitro analysis confirmed compound 1 (IC50=0.42 μM) as an effective, mixed-type, and selective AChE inhibitor, binding at both the enzyme's catalytic and peripheral anionic sites. Furthermore, compound 1 demonstrated a remarkable ability to reduce the aggregation propensity of Aβ, as evidenced by Confocal laser scanning microscopy and TEM studies. Remarkably, in vivo studies exhibited the promising therapeutic potential of compound 1. In a scopolamine-induced memory deficit mouse model of AD, compound 1 showed significantly improved spatial memory and cognition. These findings collectively underscore the potential of compound 1 as a promising therapeutic candidate for the treatment of AD.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Investigation of Quinazoline Derivatives as Multitargeting Therapeutics in Alzheimer's Disease Therapy

An efficient and promising method of treating complex neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the multitarget-directed approach. Here in this work, a series of quinazoline derivatives (AV-1 to AV-21) were rationally designed, synthesized, and biologically evaluated as multitargeted directed ligands against human cholinesterase (hChE) and human β-secretase (hBACE-1) that exhibit moderate to good inhibitory effects. Compounds AV-1, AV-2, and AV-3 from the series demonstrated balanced and significant inhibition against these targets. These compounds also displayed excellent blood-brain barrier permeability via the PAMPA-BBB assay. Compound AV-2 significantly displaced propidium iodide (PI) from the acetylcholinesterase-peripheral anionic site (AChE-PAS) and was found to be non-neurotoxic at the maximum tested concentration (80 μM) against differentiated SH-SY5Y cell lines. Compound AV-2 also prevented AChE- and self-induced Aβ aggregation in the thioflavin T assay. Additionally, compound AV-2 significantly ameliorated scopolamine and Aβ-induced cognitive impairments in the in vivo behavioral Y-maze and Morris water maze studies, respectively. The ex vivo and biochemical analysis further revealed good hippocampal AChE inhibition and the antioxidant potential of the compound AV-2. Western blot and immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis of hippocampal brain revealed reduced Aβ, BACE-1, APP/Aβ, and Tau molecular protein expressions levels. The pharmacokinetic analysis of compound AV-2 demonstrated significant oral absorption with good bioavailability. The in silico molecular modeling studies of lead compound AV-2 moreover demonstrated a reasonable binding profile with AChE and BACE-1 enzymes and stable ligand-protein complexes throughout the 100 ns run. Compound AV-2 can be regarded as the lead candidate and could be explored more for AD therapy.

The new role of dipyrromethene chemosensor for absorbance-ratiometic and fluorescence "turn-on" sensing Zn2+ ions in water-organic solutions and real water samples

This study presents a dipyrromethene-based sensitive and selective probe for Zn2+ ions detection in aqueous and water-organic media. The probe demonstrates absorbance-ratiometric and "off-on" fluorescent sensing for Zn2+ in a DMSO/H2O (9:1, v/v) mixture. The 3,3',4,4',5,5'-hexamethyl-2,2'-dipyrromethene (HL), similar to its analogs, exhibits weak fluorescence (with a quantum yield of less than 0.001). However, upon the presence of Zn2+ ions in the sensor HL solution, there is a remarkable increase (up to 200-fold) in fluorescence intensity due to the formation of a stable intramolecular chelate complex [ZnL2]. This complex formation induces a significant hyperchromic effect and a red shift (57 nm) in the characteristic absorption bands. The sensing mechanism of the probe towards Zn2+ ions was thoroughly investigated through absorbance and fluorescent titrations, molar ratio plots, 1H NMR, and DFT/TDDFT studies. The fluorescence response exhibited a strong linear relationship with Zn2+ concentration within the range of 0 to 5.7 × 10-6 mol/L. The detection limit (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LoQ) for Zn2+ were determined as 2 × 10-8 mol/L and 6.6 × 10-8 mol/L, respectively. Moreover, the probe demonstrated high selectivity for Zn2+ ions over other metal ions (Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, Cr3+, Mn2+, Fe3+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Pd2+, Cd2+, Hg2+, Pb2+). Test systems in the form of test-strips and cotton-pads were developed based on the dipyrromethene sensor for rapid "naked-eye" detection of zinc ions in water. The sensor was successfully applied for detecting Zn2+ ions in real water samples.

Targeting glycogen synthase kinase-3β for Alzheimer's disease: Recent advances and future Prospects

Senile plaques induced by β-amyloid (Aβ) abnormal aggregation and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) caused by tau hyperphosphorylation are important pathological manifestations of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a conserved kinase; one member GSK-3β is highly expressed in the AD brain and involved in the formation of NFT. Hence, pharmacologically inhibiting GSK-3β activity and expression is a good approach to treat AD. As summarized in this article, multiple GSK-3β inhibitors has been comprehensively summarized over recent five years. However, only lithium carbonate and Tideglusib have been studied in clinical trials of AD. Besides ATP-competitive and non-ATP-competitive inhibitors, peptide inhibitors, allosteric inhibitors and other types of inhibitors have gradually attracted more interest. Moreover, considering the close relationship between GSK-3β and other targets involved in cholinergic hypothesis, Aβ aggregation hypothesis, tau hyperphosphorylation hypothesis, oxidative stress hypothesis, neuro-inflammation hypothesis, etc., diverse multifunctional molecules and multi-target directed ligands (MTDLs) have also been disclosed. We hope that these recent advances and critical perspectives will facilitate the discovery of safe and effective GSK-3β inhibitors for AD treatment.

Identification of the reporter gene combination that shows high contrast for cellular level MRI

Currently, we can label the certain cells by transducing specific genes, called reporter genes, and distinguish them from other cells. For example, fluorescent protein such as green fluorescence protein (GFP) is commonly used for cell labeling. However, fluorescent protein is difficult to observe in living animals. We can observe the reporter signals of the luciferin-luciferase system from the outside of living animals using in vivo imaging systems, although the resolution of this system is low. Therefore, in this study, we examined the reporter genes, which allowed the MRI-mediated observation of labeled cells in living animals. As a preliminary stage of animal study, we transduced some groups of plasmids that coded the protein that could take and store metal ions to the cell culture, added metal ions solutions, and measured their T1 or T2 relaxation values. Finally, we specified the best reporter gene combination for MRI, which was the combination of transferrin receptor, DMT1, and Ferritin-M6A for T1WI, and Ferritin-M6A for T2WI.

Microglia in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are manifested by a progressive death of neural cells, resulting in the deterioration of central nervous system (CNS) functions, ultimately leading to specific behavioural and cognitive symptoms associated with affected brain regions. Several neurodegenerative disorders are caused by genetic variants or mutations, although the majority of cases are sporadic and linked to various environmental risk factors, with yet an unknown aetiology. Neuroglial changes are fundamental and often lead to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. In particular, microglial cells, which are essential for maintaining CNS health, become compromised in their physiological functions with the exposure to environmental risk factors, genetic variants or mutations, as well as disease pathology. In this chapter, we cover the contribution of neuroglia, especially microglia, to several neurodegenerative diseases, including Nasu-Hakola disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, infectious disease-associated neurodegeneration, and metal-precipitated neurodegeneration. Future research perspectives for the field pertaining to the therapeutic targeting of microglia across these disease conditions are also discussed.

Recent Advancements in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: A Multitarget-directed Ligand Approach

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease and one of the leading causes of progressive dementia, affecting 50 million people worldwide. Many pathogenic processes, including amyloid β aggregation, tau hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress, neuronal death, and deterioration of the function of cholinergic neurons, are associated with its progression. The one-compound-one-target treatment paradigm was unsuccessful in treating AD due to the multifaceted nature of Alzheimer's disease. The recent development of multitarget-directed ligand research has been explored to target the complementary pathways associated with the disease. We aimed to find the key role and progress of MTDLs in treating AD; thus, we searched for the past ten years of literature on "Pub- Med", "ScienceDirect", "ACS" and "Bentham Science" using the keywords neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer's disease, and multitarget-directed ligands. The literature was further filtered based on the quality of work and relevance to AD. Thus, this review highlights the current advancement and advantages of multitarget-directed ligands over traditional single-targeted drugs and recent progress in their development to treat AD.

Neuropathological profile of the African Giant Rat brain (Cricetomys gambianus) after natural exposure to heavy metal environmental pollution in the Nigerian Niger Delta

Pollution by heavy metals is a threat to public health because of the adverse effects on multiple organ systems including the brain. Here, we used the African giant rat (AGR) as a novel sentinel host to assess the effect of heavy metal accumulation and consequential neuropathology upon the brain. For this study, AGR were collected from distinct geographical regions of Nigeria: the rain forest region of south-west Nigeria (Ibadan), the central north of Nigeria (Abuja), and in oil-polluted areas of south Nigeria (Port-Harcourt). We found that zinc, copper, and iron were the major heavy metals that accumulated in the brain and serum of sentinel AGR, with the level of iron highest in animals from Port-Harcourt and least in animals from Abuja. Brain pathology, determined by immunohistochemistry markers of inflammation and oxidative stress, was most severe in animals from Port Harcourt followed by those from Abuja and those from Ibadan were the least affected. The brain pathologies were characterized by elevated brain advanced oxidation protein product (AOPP) levels, neuronal depletion in the prefrontal cortex, severe reactive astrogliosis in the hippocampus and cerebellar white matter, demyelination in the subcortical white matter and cerebellar white matter, and tauopathies. Selective vulnerabilities of different brain regions to heavy metal pollution in the AGR collected from the different regions of the country were evident. In conclusion, we propose that neuropathologies associated with redox dyshomeostasis because of environmental pollution may be localized and contextual, even in a heavily polluted environment. This novel study also highlights African giant rats as suitable epidemiological sentinels for use in ecotoxicological studies.

Berberine derivatives as inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase: A systematic review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic age-related neurodegenerative brain disorder characterized by the impairment of memory accompanied by worsening of thinking ability of an individual. The exact pathophysiology of AD is not fully understood. However low level of the neurotransmitter named acetylcholine (ACh), aggregation of Aβ peptide into toxic Aβ plaque, hyperphosphorylation of tau, bio-metal imbalance, and oxidative stress are the main hallmarks of this disease. Due to the complex pathophysiology of AD, no specific treatment is available in the market, and treatment is only limited to the symptomatic relief. So, there is an urgent need for the development of new drug candidate, which can have disease-modifying effect and improve learning and memory in AD patient. Therefore, berberine-based multifunction compounds with potential cholinesterase inhibitory properties were reviewed in this article. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) and biological activity provide highlights on the new derivatives used for the management of AD.

Consequences of Disturbing Manganese Homeostasis

Manganese (Mn) is an essential trace element with unique functions in the body; it acts as a cofactor for many enzymes involved in energy metabolism, the endogenous antioxidant enzyme systems, neurotransmitter production, and the regulation of reproductive hormones. However, overexposure to Mn is toxic, particularly to the central nervous system (CNS) due to it causing the progressive destruction of nerve cells. Exposure to manganese is widespread and occurs by inhalation, ingestion, or dermal contact. Associations have been observed between Mn accumulation and neurodegenerative diseases such as manganism, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. People with genetic diseases associated with a mutation in the gene associated with impaired Mn excretion, kidney disease, iron deficiency, or a vegetarian diet are at particular risk of excessive exposure to Mn. This review has collected data on the current knowledge of the source of Mn exposure, the experimental data supporting the dispersive accumulation of Mn in the brain, the controversies surrounding the reference values of biomarkers related to Mn status in different matrices, and the competitiveness of Mn with other metals, such as iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), calcium (Ca). The disturbed homeostasis of Mn in the body has been connected with susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases, fertility, and infectious diseases. The current evidence on the involvement of Mn in metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus/insulin resistance, osteoporosis, obesity, atherosclerosis, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, was collected and discussed.

Evaluation of 4-aminoquinoline derivatives with an n-octylamino spacer as potential multi-targeting ligands for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

The most successful therapeutic strategy in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is directed toward increasing levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) by inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), the enzymes responsible for its hydrolysis. In this paper, we extended our study on 4-aminoquinolines as human cholinesterase inhibitors on twenty-six new 4-aminoquinolines containing an n-octylamino spacer on C(4) and different substituents on the terminal amino group. We evaluated the potency of new derivatives to act as multi-targeted ligands by determining their inhibition potency towards human AChE and BChE, ability to chelate biometals Fe, Cu and Zn, ability to inhibit the action of β-secretase 1 (BACE1) and their antioxidant capacity. All of the tested derivatives were very potent inhibitors of human AChE and BChE with inhibition constants (Ki) ranging from 0.0023 to 1.6 μM. Most of the compounds were estimated to be able to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by passive transport and were nontoxic to human neuronal, kidney and liver cells in concentrations in which they inhibit cholinesterases. Generally, newly synthesised compounds were weak reductants compared to standard antioxidants, but all possessed a certain amount of antioxidant activity compared to tacrine. Of the eleven most potent cholinesterase inhibitors, eight compounds also inhibited BACE1 activity at 10-18%. Based on our overall results, compounds 8 with 3-fluorobenzyl, 11 with 3-chlorobenzyl and 17 with 3-metoxy benzyl substituents on the terminal amino group stood out as the most promising for the treatment of AD; they strongly inhibited AChE and BChE, were non-toxic on HepG2, HEK293 and SH-SY5Y cells, had the potential to cross the BBB and possessed the ability to chelate biometals and/or inhibit the activity of BACE1 within a range close to the therapeutically desired degree of inhibition.

Manganese level and cognitive decline in older adults with the APOE e4 allele: a preliminary study

This study examined the relationship between serum manganese level and cognition, and the moderating effect of apolipoprotein E ε4 (APOE4) on this relationship. A total of 164 non-demented participants underwent clinical assessments including serum manganese level and cognition [episodic memory score (EMS), non-memory score (NMS) for executive function/attention/language/ visuospatial skill, and total score (TS)]. Serum manganese × APOE4 interaction had a significant effect on EMS and TS. Serum manganese level was inversely associated with EMS and TS in APOE4-positive but not APOE4-negative participants. APOE4 should be considered a key component in Alzheimer's disease studies that included manganese imbalance as a risk factor.

Leveraging coordination chemistry to visualize metal ions via photoacoustic imaging

Metal ions are indispensable to all living systems owing to their diverse roles. Perturbation of metal homeostasis have been linked to many pathological conditions. As such, visualizing metal ions in these complex environments are of utmost importance. Photoacoustic imaging is a promising modality that combines the sensitivity of fluorescence to the superior resolution of ultrasound, through a light-in sound-out process, making it an appealing modality for metal ion detection in vivo. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the development of photoacoustic imaging probes for in vivo detection of metal ions, such as potassium, copper, zinc, and palladium. In addition, we provide our perspective and outlook on the exciting field.

Phyllodulcin improves hippocampal long-term potentiation in 5XFAD mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a well-known neurodegenerative brain disease, and no curative treatment has yet been developed. The main symptoms include various brain lesions, caused by amyloid β (Aβ) aggregation, and cognitive decline. Therefore, it is believed that substances that control Aβ will inhibit the onset of Alzheimer's disease and slow its progression. In this study, the effect of phyllodulcin, a major component of hydrangea, on Aβ aggregation and brain pathology in an animal model of AD was studied. Phyllodulcin inhibited the aggregation of Aβ and decomposed the pre-aggregated Aβ in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, it inhibited the cytotoxicity of Aβ aggregates. Oral administration of phyllodulcin improved Aβ-induced memory impairments in normal mice, reduced Aβ deposition in the hippocampus, inhibited the activation of microglia and astrocytes, and improved synaptic plasticity in 5XFAD mice. These results suggest that phyllodulcin may be a candidate for the treatment of AD.

Study on multi-target effects of PIMPC on Aβ/Cu2+-induced Alzheimer's disease model of rats

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3), a key role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), has been linked with the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ), tubulin-associated unit (tau) protein phosphorylation and apoptosis. Moreover, the excessive presence of elements such as copper (Cu) can promote Aβ aggregation and increase the risk of AD. Combined with the role of GSK-3 and metal elements in AD, a metal-chelating imine GSK-3 inhibitor N-(4-{[(2-amino-5-phenylpyridin-3-ylidene)imino]methyl}pyridin-2-yl)cyclopropanecarboxamide (PIMPC) was designed and synthesized. In our study, Aβ/Cu²⁺-induced AD rat model was established and treated with PIMPC. The results indicated that PIMPC can not only down-regulate the high expression levels of Aβ, tau and p-tau proteins of the AD rats, but also chelate Cu and aluminum (Al) elements in the brain. In addition, PIMPC may play an anti-apoptotic effect by down-regulating the high expression of cleaved Caspase-3 protein, and it can modulate ATPase and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) levels, oxidative stress and neurotransmitter disturbance. In summary, PIMPC acts on multiple targets to relieve the learning and memory impairment of AD rats induced by Aβ/Cu²⁺.

Deposition of heavy metals in biological tissues of workers in metal workshops

Welding and cutting of metals produce large amounts of particulate matter (PM), which poses a significant health risk to exposed workers. Appropriate biological markers to estimate exposure are of great interest for occupational health and safety. Here, hair and nail samples from metal workers were analyzed, which appear to be more suitable than blood or urine samples for assessing long-term exposure. Four workshops working with steel components were included in the study. The hair and nail samples were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to measure the concentrations of 12 elements. At the workplaces, the concentrations of 15 elements in particulate matter were determined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) techniques. The hair and nail samples of the workers contained significantly higher metal concentrations than the analytical results of a nonexposed control group. The most significant difference between the groups was found for Ti, Mn, Fe, and Co.

The cellular model for Alzheimer's disease research: PC12 cells

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common age-related neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive decline and irreversible memory impairment. Currently, several studies have failed to fully elucidate AD's cellular and molecular mechanisms. For this purpose, research on related cellular models may propose potential predictive models for the drug development of AD. Therefore, many cells characterized by neuronal properties are widely used to mimic the pathological process of AD, such as PC12, SH-SY5Y, and N2a, especially the PC12 pheochromocytoma cell line. Thus, this review covers the most systematic essay that used PC12 cells to study AD. We depict the cellular source, culture condition, differentiation methods, transfection methods, drugs inducing AD, general approaches (evaluation methods and metrics), and in vitro cellular models used in parallel with PC12 cells.

Exploring the K isotope composition of Göttingen minipig brain regions, and implications for Alzheimer's disease

Natural stable metal isotopes have shown utility in differentiation between healthy and diseased brain states (e.g. Alzheimer's disease, AD). While the AD brain accumulates some metals, it purges others, namely K (accompanied by increased serum K, suggesting brain-blood transferal). Here, K isotope compositions of Göttingen minipig brain regions for two AD models at midlife are reported. Results indicate heavy K isotope enrichment where amyloid beta (Aβ) accumulation is observed, and this enrichment correlates with relative K depletion. These results suggest preferential efflux of isotopically light K+ from the brain, a linkage between brain K concentrations and isotope compositions, and linkage to Aβ (previously shown to purge cellular brain K+). Brain K isotope compositions differ from that for serum and brain K is much more abundant than in serum, suggesting that changes in brain K may transfer a measurable K isotope excursion to serum, thereby generating an early AD biomarker.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of thieno[3,2-c]pyrazol-3-amine derivatives as potent glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease

Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) catalyses the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein in the Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. A series of novel thieno[3,2-c]pyrazol-3-amine derivatives were designed and synthesised and evaluated as potential GSK-3β inhibitors by structure-guided drug rational design approach. The thieno[3,2-c]pyrazol-3-amine derivative 16b was identified as a potent GSK-3β inhibitor with an IC₅₀ of 3.1 nM in vitro and showed accepted kinase selectivity. In cell levels, 16b showed no toxicity on the viability of SH-SY5Y cells at the concentration up to 50 μM and targeted GSK-3β with the increased phosphorylated GSK-3β at Ser9. Western blot analysis indicated that 16b decreased the phosphorylated tau at Ser396 in a dose-dependent way. Moreover, 16b effectively increased expressions of β-catenin as well as the GAP43, N-myc, and MAP-2, and promoted the differentiated neuronal neurite outgrowth. Therefore, the thieno[3,2-c]pyrazol-3-amine derivative 16b could serve as a promising GSK-3β inhibitor for the treatment of AD.

Metal ions in cerebrospinal fluid: Associations with anxiety, depression, and insomnia among cigarette smokers

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to investigate the relationship between cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) metal ions and anxiety, depression, and insomnia among cigarette smokers.

METHODS

We measured CSF levels of various metal ions from 178 Chinese male subjects. Apart from sociodemographic and clinical characteristics data, the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) were applied.

RESULTS

BDI and PSQI scores (all p < 0.001) were significantly higher in active smokers than nonsmokers. Active smokers have significantly higher CSF levels of magnesium, zinc, iron, lead, lithium, and aluminum (all p ≤ 0.002). Some metal ions, including zinc, iron, lead, and aluminum, were found to have a significant correlation with BDI scores, whereas metal ions, including zinc and lead, were found to have a significant correlation with PSQI scores in the general group. More interesting, mediation analysis showed that aluminum mediated the relationship between smoking and depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Cigarette smoking was indeed associated with depression and insomnia. Active smokers had significantly higher CSF levels of magnesium, zinc, iron, lead, lithium, and aluminum. Furthermore, CSF aluminum played a mediating role in the relationship between smoking and depression, which further confirmed its neurotoxicity.

New Multifunctional Agents for Potential Alzheimer's Disease Treatment Based on Tacrine Conjugates with 2-Arylhydrazinylidene-1,3-Diketones

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is considered a modern epidemic because of its increasing prevalence worldwide and serious medico-social consequences, including the economic burden of treatment and patient care. The development of new effective therapeutic agents for AD is one of the most urgent and challenging tasks. To address this need, we used an aminoalkylene linker to combine the well-known anticholinesterase drug tacrine with antioxidant 2-tolylhydrazinylidene-1,3-diketones to create 3 groups of hybrid compounds as new multifunctional agents with the potential for AD treatment. Lead compounds of the new conjugates effectively inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE, IC50 0.24-0.34 µM) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE, IC50 0.036-0.0745 µM), with weak inhibition of off-target carboxylesterase. Anti-AChE activity increased with elongation of the alkylene spacer, in agreement with molecular docking, which showed compounds binding to both the catalytic active site and peripheral anionic site (PAS) of AChE, consistent with mixed type reversible inhibition. PAS binding along with effective propidium displacement suggest the potential of the hybrids to block AChE-induced β-amyloid aggregation, a disease-modifying effect. All of the conjugates demonstrated metal chelating ability for Cu2+, Fe2+, and Zn2+, as well as high antiradical activity in the ABTS test. Non-fluorinated hybrid compounds 6 and 7 also showed Fe3+ reducing activity in the FRAP test. Predicted ADMET and physicochemical properties of conjugates indicated good CNS bioavailability and safety parameters acceptable for potential lead compounds at the early stages of anti-AD drug development.

Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway Is Strongly Implicated in Cadmium-Induced Developmental Neurotoxicity and Neuroinflammation: Clues from Zebrafish Neurobehavior and In Vivo Neuroimaging

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal and worldwide environmental pollutant which seriously threatens human health and ecosystems. It is easy to be adsorbed and deposited in organisms, exerting adverse effects on various organs including the brain. In a very recent study, making full use of a zebrafish model in both high-throughput behavioral tracking and live neuroimaging, we explored the potential developmental neurotoxicity of Cd²⁺ at environmentally relevant levels and identified multiple connections between Cd²⁺ exposure and neurodevelopmental disorders as well as microglia-mediated neuroinflammation, whereas the underlying neurotoxic mechanisms remained unclear. The canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway plays crucial roles in many biological processes including neurodevelopment, cell survival, and cell cycle regulation, as well as microglial activation, thereby potentially presenting one of the key targets of Cd²⁺ neurotoxicity. Therefore, in this follow-up study, we investigated the implication of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in Cd²⁺-induced developmental disorders and neuroinflammation and revealed that environmental Cd²⁺ exposure significantly affected the expression of key factors in the zebrafish Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. In addition, pharmacological intervention of this pathway via TWS119, which can increase the protein level of β-catenin and act as a classical activator of the Wnt signaling pathway, could significantly repress the Cd²⁺-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, thereby attenuating the inhibitory effects of Cd²⁺ on the early development, behavior, and activity, as well as neurodevelopment of zebrafish larvae to a certain degree. Furthermore, activation and proliferation of microglia, as well as the altered expression profiles of genes associated with neuroimmune homeostasis triggered by Cd²⁺ exposure could also be significantly alleviated by the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Thus, this study provided novel insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of Cd²⁺ toxicity on the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS), which might be helpful in developing pharmacotherapies to mitigate the neurological disorders resulting from exposure to Cd²⁺ and many other environmental heavy metals.

Exposure of metal toxicity in Alzheimer’s disease: An extensive review

Metals serve important roles in the human body, including the maintenance of cell structure and the regulation of gene expression, the antioxidant response, and neurotransmission. High metal uptake in the nervous system is harmful because it can cause oxidative stress, disrupt mitochondrial function, and impair the activity of various enzymes. Metal accumulation can cause lifelong deterioration, including severe neurological problems. There is a strong association between accidental metal exposure and various neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common form of dementia that causes degeneration in the aged. Chronic exposure to various metals is a well-known environmental risk factor that has become more widespread due to the rapid pace at which human activities are releasing large amounts of metals into the environment. Consequently, humans are exposed to both biometals and heavy metals, affecting metal homeostasis at molecular and biological levels. This review highlights how these metals affect brain physiology and immunity and their roles in creating harmful proteins such as β-amyloid and tau in AD. In addition, we address findings that confirm the disruption of immune-related pathways as a significant toxicity mechanism through which metals may contribute to AD.

The position of geochemical variables as causal co-factors of diseases of unknown aetiology

Abstract

The term diseases of unknown aetiology (DUA) or idiopathic diseases is used to describe diseases that are of uncertain or unknown cause or origin. Among plausible geoenvironmental co-factors in causation of DUA, this article focusses on the entry of trace elements, including metals and metalloids into humans, and their involvement in humoral and cellular immune responses, representing potentially toxic agents with implications as co-factors for certain DUA. Several trace elements/metals/metalloids (micronutrients) play vital roles as co-factors for essential enzymes and antioxidant molecules, thus, conferring protection against disease. However, inborn errors of trace element/metal/metalloid metabolisms can occur to produce toxicity, such as when there are basic defects in the element transport mechanism. Ultimately, it is the amount of trace element, metal or metalloid that is taken up, its mode of accumulation in human tissues, and related geomedical attributes such as the chemical form and bioavailability that decisively determine whether the exerted effects are toxic or beneficial. Several case descriptions of DUA that are common worldwide are given to illustrate our knowledge so far of how trace element/metal/metalloid interactions in the immune system may engender its dysregulation and be implicated as causal co-factors of DUA.

Article highlights

The importance of a proper understanding of geochemical perturbations in human metabolisms is emphasisedIt is proferred that such an understanding would aid greatly in the decipherment of diseases of unknown aetiology (DUA)The thesis presented may pave the way towards better diagnosis and therapy of DUA.

The Role of Metals in the Neuroregenerative Action of BDNF, GDNF, NGF and Other Neurotrophic Factors

Mature neurotrophic factors and their propeptides play key roles ranging from the regulation of neuronal growth and differentiation to prominent participation in neuronal survival and recovery after injury. Their signaling pathways sculpture neuronal circuits during brain development and regulate adaptive neuroplasticity. In addition, neurotrophic factors provide trophic support for damaged neurons, giving them a greater capacity to survive and maintain their potential to regenerate their axons. Therefore, the modulation of these factors can be a valuable target for treating or preventing neurologic disorders and age-dependent cognitive decline. Neuroregenerative medicine can take great advantage by the deepening of our knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying the properties of neurotrophic factors. It is indeed an intriguing topic that a significant interplay between neurotrophic factors and various metals can modulate the outcome of neuronal recovery. This review is particularly focused on the roles of GDNF, BDNF and NGF in motoneuron survival and recovery from injuries and evaluates the therapeutic potential of various neurotrophic factors in neuronal regeneration. The key role of metal homeostasis/dyshomeostasis and metal interaction with neurotrophic factors on neuronal pathophysiology is also highlighted as a novel mechanism and potential target for neuronal recovery. The progress in mechanistic studies in the field of neurotrophic factor-mediated neuroprotection and neural regeneration, aiming at a complete understanding of integrated pathways, offers possibilities for the development of novel neuroregenerative therapeutic approaches.

Clinical Implications of Focal Mineral Deposition in the Globus Pallidus on CT and Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping of MRI

OBJECTIVE

To assess focal mineral deposition in the globus pallidus (GP) by CT and quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) of MRI scans and evaluate its clinical significance, particularly cerebrovascular degeneration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study included 105 patients (66.1 ± 13.7 years; 40 male and 65 female) who underwent both CT and MRI with available QSM data between January 2017 and December 2019. The presence of focal mineral deposition in the GP on QSM (GP_QSM) and CT (GP_CT) was assessed visually using a three-point scale. Cerebrovascular risk factors and small vessel disease (SVD) imaging markers were also assessed. The clinical and radiological findings were compared between the different grades of GP_QSM and GP_CT. The relationship between GP grades and cerebrovascular risk factors and SVD imaging markers was assessed using univariable and multivariable linear regression analyses.

RESULTS

GP_CT and GP_QSM were significantly associated (p < 0.001) but were not identical. Higher GP_CT and GP_QSM grades showed smaller gray matter (p = 0.030 and p = 0.025, respectively) and white matter (p = 0.013 and p = 0.019, respectively) volumes, as well as larger GP volumes (p < 0.001 for both). Among SVD markers, white matter hyperintensity was significantly associated with GP_CT (p = 0.006) and brain atrophy was significantly associated with GP_QSM (p = 0.032) in at univariable analysis. In multivariable analysis, the normalized volume of the GP was independently positively associated with GP_CT (p < 0.001) and GP_QSM (p = 0.002), while the normalized volume of the GM was independently negatively associated with GP_CT (p = 0.040) and GP_QSM (p = 0.035).

CONCLUSION

Focal mineral deposition in the GP on CT and QSM might be a potential imaging marker of cerebral vascular degeneration. Both were associated with increased GP volume.

Synthesis, characterization, molecular docking, dynamics simulations, and in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) studies of new thiazolylhydrazone derivatives as butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors

In this study, two novel series of thiazolylhydrazone derivatives containing 4-ethylpiperazine (3a–3f) and 4-methoxyphenylpiperazine (3g–3l) side chains were synthesized and their structures were characterized by spectral (1H NMR, 13C NMR, and MS spectra) analyses. In vitro inhibitory activities of synthesized compounds against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) were determined by Ellman method. According to the results, all compounds showed a weak inhibitory effect on AChE, while promising results were obtained on BChE. Among the synthesized compounds, the activities of the derivatives carrying 4-ethylpiperazine (3a–3f) structure were found to be more effective than the compounds carrying 4-methoxyphenyl piperazine (3g–3l) derivatives. Especially, compound 3f bearing the nitro substituent was found to be the most promising compound on BChE in the series. The absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) parameters of the synthesized compounds were predicted by using the SwissADME server. The potential binding mode and stability of compound 3f with BChE were investigated by the molecular docking and dynamics simulations. The results showed that 3f was strongly bound up with BChE with the optimal conformation; in addition, their binding free energy reached −167.936 ± 13.109 kJ/mol.

Recent Advances Towards Diagnosis and Therapeutic Fingerprinting for Alzheimer's Disease

Since the report of "a peculiar severe disease process of the cerebral cortex" by Alois Alzheimer in 1906, it was considered to be a rare condition characterized by loss of cognition, memory impairment, and pathological markers such as senile plaques or neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Later on, the report was published in the textbook "Psychiatrie" and the disease was named as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and was known to be the consequences of aging; however, owing to its complex etiology, there is no cure for the progressive neurodegenerative disorder. Our current understanding of the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of AD is still at the mechanistic level. The treatment strategies applied currently only alleviate the symptoms and co-morbidities. For instance, the available treatments such as the usage of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and N-methyl D-aspartate antagonists have minimal impact on the disease progression and target the later aspects of the disease. The recent advancements in the last two decades have made us more clearly understand the pathophysiology of the disease which has led to the development of novel therapeutic strategies. This review gives a brief idea about the various facets of AD pathophysiology and its management through modern investigational therapies to give a new direction for development of targeted therapeutic measures.

Deferoxamine ameliorated Al(mal)3-induced neuronal ferroptosis in adult rats by chelating brain iron to attenuate oxidative damage

Aluminum (Al), a neurotoxic element, can induce Alzheimer's disease-like (AD-like) changes by triggering neuronal death. Iron homeostasis disturbance has also been implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and excess iron exacerbates oxidative damage and cognitive defects. Ferroptosis is a nonapoptotic form of cell death dependent upon intracellular iron. However, the involvement of neuronal death induced by aluminum maltolate (Al(mal)₃) in the pathogenesis of AD remains elusive. In this study, the results of three different behavioral experiments suggested that the learning and memory ability deteriorated and autonomous activity declined of these rats that exposed Al(mal)₃ were alleviated by deferoxamine (DFO). Transmission electron microscope observations showed that the membrane was ruptured, and the membrane density increased and ridge disappearance (the most prominent characteristic of ferroptosis) in the perinuclear and cytoplasmic compartments of the hippocampal neurons were perceived in the exposure group, while the DFO group and 18 μM/kg Al(mal)₃+DFO group were alleviated compared with 18 μM/kg Al(mal)₃. In addition, DFO prevented oxidative stress, such as increased glutathione (GSH) and decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), while the latter two indexes had the same changing tendency as the total iron of brain tissue. These data indicated that Al(mal)₃ could cause ferroptosis in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rat neurons, which was inhibited by DFO via reducing the content of iron and increasing the ability of cells to resist oxidative damage.

Developmental exposure to environmental levels of cadmium induces neurotoxicity and activates microglia in zebrafish larvae: From the perspectives of neurobehavior and neuroimaging

Cadmium (Cd) is a worldwide environmental pollutant that postures serious threats to humans and ecosystems. Over the years, its adverse effects on the central nervous system (CNS) have been concerned, whereas the underlying cellular/molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, taking advantages of zebrafish model in high-throughput imaging and behavioral tests, we have explored the potential developmental neurotoxicity of Cd at environmentally relevant levels, from the perspectives of neurobehavior and neuroimaging. Briefly, Cd²⁺ exposure resulted in a general impairment of zebrafish early development. Zebrafish neurobehavioral patterns including locomotion and reactivity to environmental signals were significantly perturbed upon Cd²⁺ exposure. Importantly, a combination of in vivo two-photon neuroimaging, flow cytometry and gene expression analyses revealed notable neurodevelopmental disorders as well as neuroimmune responses induced by Cd²⁺ exposure. Both cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis contributed jointly to a significant decrease of neuronal density in zebrafish larvae exposed to Cd²⁺. The dramatic morphological alterations of microglia from multi-branched to amoeboid, the microgliosis, as well as the modulation of gene expression profiles demonstrated a strong activation of microglia and neuroinflammation triggered by environmental levels of Cd²⁺. Together, our study points to the developmental toxicity of Cd in inducing CNS impairment and neuroinflammation thereby providing visualized etiological evidence of this heavy metal induced neurodevelopmental disorders. It's tempting to speculate that this research model might represent a promising tool not only for understanding the molecular mechanisms of Cd-induced neurotoxicity, but also for developing pharmacotherapies to mitigate the neurological damage resulting from exposure to Cd, and other neurotoxicants.