Fructose Induces Visceral Adipose Tissue Inflammation and Insulin Resistance Even Without Development of Obesity in Adult Female but Not in Male Rats

Excess Fructose Intake Activates Hyperinsulinemia and Mitogenic MAPK Pathways in Association With Cellular Stress, Inflammation, and Apoptosis in the Pancreas of Rats

The increase in sugar consumption has been associated with current metabolic disease epidemics. This study aimed to investigate the pancreatic molecular mechanisms involved in cellular stress, inflammation, mitogenesis, and apoptosis in metabolic disease induced by high-fructose diet. Here, we used biochemical, histopathological, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry methods to determine the metabolic and pancreatic alterations in male Wistar rats fed 20% fructose in drinking water for 15 weeks. High-fructose consumption in rats increased the immunopositivity and protein expression of glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) and insulin in the pancreatic tissue, in association with abdominal adiposity, hyperglycemia, and hypertriglyceridemia. The expressions of cellular stress markers, glucose-regulated protein-78 (GRP78) and PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1), were increased in the pancreas. The levels of interleukin (IL)-6, nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), and IL-1β and components of the Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome were elevated. Excess fructose intake stimulated the activation of mitogenic extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)1 as well as the apoptotic p53 and Fas pathways in the pancreas of rats. There was also an increase in caspase-8 and caspase-3 cleavage. Our findings revealed that dietary high-fructose in the pancreas causes hyperinsulinemia due to the upregulation of GLUT2 together with cellular stress and inflammatory markers, thereby stimulates mitogenic mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and apoptosis pathways, resulting in a complex pathological situation.

Association between visceral fat area to skeletal muscle mass ratio and hyperuricemia among non-elderly US adults

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Sarcopenic visceral obesity is linked to an elevated metabolic risk. Our aim was to explore the possible link between visceral fat area to skeletal muscle mass ratio (VSR) and hyperuricemia risk in non-elderly U.S. adults.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This cross-sectional study evaluated 5519 non-elderly adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database. Visceral fat area (VFA) and appendicular skeletal muscle mass (ASM) were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Hyperuricemia was identified by serum uric acid (SUA) levels of 7 mg/dL or more in males and 6 mg/dL or more in females. Logistic regression, restricted cubic spline (RCS), and subgroup analyses were applied to investigate the association between VSR and hyperuricemia risk. As VSR levels increase, the prevalence of hyperuricemia becomes more pronounced (6.35 % vs. 14.45 % vs. 14.68 % vs. 17.03 %, P < 0.001). After adjusting for confounding factors, elevated VSR levels are associated with an increased risk of hyperuricemia (OR = 1.136, 95 %CI:1.051-1.229, P = 0.001). Individuals in the fourth quartile of VSR exhibit a higher risk of developing hyperuricemia compared to those in the first quartile (OR = 2.299, 95 %CI:1.328-3.979, P = 0.003). No specific populations were identified in the subgroup analysis. RCS analysis further supports a dose-response relationship.

CONCLUSIONS

VSR could serve as an epidemiological instrument to assess the impact of sarcopenic visceral obesity on the risk of hyperuricemia.

MASLD: Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Sex-Based Therapies in Postmenopausal Women

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is the most common chronic liver disease influenced by genetic, lifestyle, and environmental factors. While MASLD is more prevalent in men, women are at increased risk after menopause, highlighting the critical pathogenetic role of sex hormones. The complex interplay between estrogen deficiency, visceral fat accumulation, metabolic syndrome (MetS), and inflammation accelerates disease progression, increases cardiovascular (CV) risk, and triggers a cycle of worsening adiposity, metabolic dysfunction, and psychological problems, including eating disorders. Weight loss in postmenopausal women can significantly improve both metabolic and psychological outcomes, helping to prevent MASLD and related conditions. This review examines the prevalence of MASLD, its comorbidities (type 2 diabetes T2D, CV, mental disorders), pathogenetic mechanisms, and pharmacological treatment with GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP1-RAs), with a focus on postmenopausal women. Given the use of GLP1-RAs in the treatment of obesity and T2D in MASLD patients, and the increase in MetS and MASLD after menopause, this review analyzes the potential of a stable GLP-1-estrogen conjugate as a therapeutic approach in this subgroup. By combining the synergistic effects of both hormones, this dual agonist has been shown to increase food intake and food reward suppression, resulting in greater weight loss and improved insulin sensitivity, glucose, and lipid metabolism. Therefore, we hypothesize that this pharmacotherapy may provide more targeted therapeutic benefits than either hormone alone by protecting the liver, β-cells, and overall metabolic health. As these effects are only supported by preclinical data, this review highlights the critical need for future research to evaluate and confirm the mechanisms and efficacy in clinical settings, particularly in postmenopausal women.

High-Fructose Diet and Chronic Unpredictable Stress Modify Each Other's Neurobehavioral Effects in Female Rats

A pervasive exposure to stressors and the consumption of fructose-containing beverages usually go hand-in-hand in everyday life. In contrast to their metabolic outcomes, their impact on the brain and behavior is still understudied. We examined the behavioral response to a novelty (open field test), the expression of biochemical indicators of neuronal activity (Egr1 and FosB/ΔFosB), the synaptic potentiation (CaMKIIα and pCaMKIIThr286), the synaptic plasticity (synaptophysin, PSD95, gephyrin, and drebrin), and the GABAergic system (parvalbumin and GAD67), along with the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and AMPK, in the medial prefrontal cortex of female Wistar rats subjected to liquid fructose supplementation (F), chronic unpredictable stress (S), or both (SF) over 9 weeks. The only hallmark of the F group was an increased expression of pCaMKIIThr286, which was also observed in the S group, but not in the SF group. The SF group did not show hyperactivity, a decreased expression of FosB, or an increased expression of parvalbumin, as the S group did. The SF group, as with the S group, showed a decreased expression of the GR, although the basal level of corticosterone was unchanged. The SF group showed, as de novo marks, thigmotactic behavior, increased drebrin, and decreased gephyrin expression. These findings suggest that the long-term consumption of fructose, which itself has subtle neurobehavioral consequences, in combination with stress prevents some of its effects, but also contributes to novel outcomes not seen in single treatments.

Effects of voluntarily consumed sweetened alcohol and naringin on cardiac function in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats

This study assessed the impact of sweetened alcohol and naringin on cardiac function in Sprague-Dawley rats. Male (n = 40) and female (n = 40) rats were allocated to control, sweetened alcohol (SOH), naringin (NA), and sweetened alcohol with naringin (SOH + NA) groups. SOH and SOH + NA rats received 10% alcohol + 20% fructose in gelatine; SOH + NA and NA rats received 50 mg/kg naringin in gelatine daily for 10 weeks. Echocardiography was performed to assess left ventricular (LV) function. LV cardiomyocyte diameters and collagen area fraction were determined by H&E and picrosirius-red staining, respectively. In males, sweetened alcohol and naringin did not affect cardiac function. Female SOH rats had increased LV end-diastolic posterior wall (p = 0.04), relative wall thicknesses (p = 0.01), and LV cardiomyocyte diameters (p = 0.005) compared with control. Female SOH and SOH + NA had reduced lateral e' and e'/a' and increased E/e' (p < 0.0001). Female SOH (p = 0.01) and SOH + NA (p = 0.04) rats had increased LV collagen area fraction compared with controls. In males, neither sweetened alcohol nor naringin affected cardiac geometry or diastolic function. In females, sweetened alcohol induced concentric remodelling, impaired LV relaxation, and elevated filling pressures. Naringin may have the potential to improve the sweetened alcohol-induced concentric remodelling; however, it did not ameliorate diastolic dysfunction in females.

High dietary Fructose Drives Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease via Activating ubiquitin-specific peptidase 2/11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 Pathway in Mice

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is the most common cause of chronic liver-related morbidity and mortality. Though high fructose intake is acknowledged as a metabolic hazard, its role in the etiology of MASLD requires further clarification. Here, we demonstrated that high dietary fructose drives MASLD development and promotes MASLD progression in mice, and identified Usp2 as a fructose-responsive gene in the liver. Elevated USP2 levels were detected in the hepatocytes of MASLD mice; a similar increase was observed following fructose exposure in primary hepatocytes and mouse AML12 cells. Notably, hepatocytes overexpressing USP2 presented with exaggerated lipid accumulation and metabolic inflammation when exposed to fructose. Conversely, USP2 knockdown mitigated these fructose-induced changes. Furthermore, USP2 was found to activate the C/EBPα/11β-HSD1 signaling, which further impacted the equilibrium of cortisol and cortisone in the circulation of mice. Collectively, our findings revealed the role of dietary fructose in MASLD pathogenesis and identified the USP2-mediated C/EBPα/ 11β-HSD1 signaling as a potential target for the management of MASLD.

The Impact of Excessive Fructose Intake on Adipose Tissue and the Development of Childhood Obesity

Worldwide, childhood obesity cases continue to rise, and its prevalence is known to increase the risk of non-communicable diseases typically found in adults, such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Thus, comprehending its multiple causes to build healthier approaches and revert this scenario is urgent. Obesity development is strongly associated with high fructose intake since the excessive consumption of this highly lipogenic sugar leads to white fat accumulation and causes white adipose tissue (WAT) inflammation, oxidative stress, and dysregulated adipokine release. Unfortunately, the global consumption of fructose has increased dramatically in recent years, which is associated with the fact that fructose is not always evident to consumers, as it is commonly added as a sweetener in food and sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB). Therefore, here, we discuss the impact of excessive fructose intake on adipose tissue biology, its contribution to childhood obesity, and current strategies for reducing high fructose and/or free sugar intake. To achieve such reductions, we conclude that it is important that the population has access to reliable information about food ingredients via food labels. Consumers also need scientific education to understand potential health risks to themselves and their children.

Microbial stars: shedding light on gut microbes' role in insulin resistance and innovative diabetes therapies

The role of gut microbiota in insulin resistance (IR), Metabolic Syndrome (MetS), and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) is rapidly gaining recognition. However, the mechanisms and implications of gut bacteria in these conditions remain enigmatic. This commentary not only highlights the findings of a recent multi-omics study by Takeuchi et al. but also offers a unique perspective by integrating personal opinions and insights. The discussion revolves around the intricate connection between gut microbes and IR, suggesting novel therapeutic potential in targeting gut microbial carbohydrate metabolism for improved IR management and metabolic health.

Diabetes and diabesity in the view of proteomics, drug, and plant-derived remedies

Diabetes and obesity are highly prevalent in the world. Proteomics is a promising approach to better understanding enzymes, proteins, and signaling molecules involved in diabetes processes which help recognize the basis of the disease better and find suitable new treatments. This study aimed to summarize the molecular mechanisms from the beginning of insulin secretion in response to stimuli to the pathology of the insulin signaling pathway and, finally, the mechanisms of drugs/chemicals remedies that affect this process. The titles and subtitles of this process were determined, and then for each of them, the articles searched in PubMed and ScienceDirect were used. This review article starts the discussion with the molecular basis of insulin biosynthesis, secretion, insulin's mechanism of action, and molecular aspect of diabetes and diabesity (a new term showing the relation between diabetes and obesity) and ends with the drug and plant-derived intervention for hyperglycemia.

Associations of artificially sweetened beverages, sugar-sweetened beverages, and pure fruit/vegetable juice with visceral adipose tissue mass

OBJECTIVE

To test the associations of sugar-sweetened beverage, artificially sweetened beverage, and pure fruit/vegetable juice consumption with visceral adipose tissue (VAT) mass at baseline and follow-up and to determine whether BMI and genetic risk of VAT mass modified the associations.

METHODS

A total of 203,348 participants from UK Biobank with consumption data on three beverages were included. Participants were categorized into nonconsumers and consumers with >0-1, >1-2 and >2 L/week. A sex-specific prediction model was used to calculate VAT mass. A weighted genetic risk score for high VAT mass was calculated.

RESULTS

The participants with a sugar-sweetened beverage and artificially sweetened beverage consumption of >2 L/week had the greatest B values [B (95% CI): 24.02 (16.53, 31.51) and 60.81 (52.08, 69.54) in men, respectively; 10.20 (5.92, 14.48) and 24.72 (20.80, 28.64) in women]. Low and moderate intake of pure fruit/vegetable juices showed a significantly inverse association with VAT mass in men [-10.52 (-15.37, -5.67); -6.46 (-11.27, -1.65)] and women [-6.70 (-8.99, -4.41); -5.93 (-8.33, -3.54)]. Regarding changes in VAT mass, participants who consumed >2 L/week of sugar-sweetened beverages and artificially sweetened beverages had greater changes. BMI but not genetic risk modified the associations between beverage intake and VAT mass, which were strengthened in participants with BMI ≥25 kg/m2 for sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverage consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages or artificially sweetened beverages was associated with greater VAT mass regardless of genetic risk. Mild-to-moderate intake of pure fruit/vegetable juices was linked to lower VAT mass.

Micropatterned primary hepatocyte co-culture (HEPATOPAC) for fatty liver disease modeling and drug screening

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a highly prevalent, progressive disorder and growing public health concern. To address this issue considerable research has been undertaken in pursuit of new NAFLD therapeutics. Development of effective, high-throughput in vitro models is an important aspect of drug discovery. Here, a micropatterned hepatocyte co-culture (MPCC) was used to model liver steatosis. The MPCC model (HEPATOPACTM) is comprised of hepatocytes and 3T3-J2 mouse stromal cells plated onto a patterned standard 96-well or 24-well plate, allowing the cultures to be handled and imaged in a standardized multi-well format. These studies employed high content imaging (HCI) analysis to assess lipid content in cultures. HCI analysis of lipid accumulation allows large numbers of samples to be imaged and analyzed in a relatively short period of time compared to manual acquisition and analysis methods. Treatment of MPCC with free fatty acids (FFA), high glucose and fructose (HGF), or a combination of both induces hepatic steatosis. MPCC treatment with ACC1/ACC2 inhibitors, as either a preventative or reversal agent, showed efficacy against FFA induced hepatic steatosis. Drug induced steatosis was also evaluated. Treatment with valproic acid showed steatosis induction in a lean background, which was significantly potentiated in a fatty liver background. Additionally, these media treatments changed expression of fatty liver related genes. Treatment of MPCC with FFA, HGF, or a combination reversibly altered expression of genes involved in fatty acid metabolism, insulin signaling, and lipid transport. Together, these data demonstrate that MPCC is an easy to use, long-term functional in vitro model of NAFLD having utility for compound screening, drug toxicity evaluation, and assessment of gene regulation.

The impact of dietary fructose on gut permeability, microbiota, abdominal adiposity, insulin signaling and reproductive function

The excessive intake of fructose in the regular human diet could be related to global increases in metabolic disorders. Sugar-sweetened soft drinks, mostly consumed by children, adolescents, and young adults, are the main source of added fructose. Dietary high-fructose can increase intestinal permeability and circulatory endotoxin by changing the gut barrier function and microbial composition. Excess fructose transports to the liver and then triggers inflammation as well as de novo lipogenesis leading to hepatic steatosis. Fructose also induces fat deposition in adipose tissue by stimulating the expression of lipogenic genes, thus causing abdominal adiposity. Activation of the inflammatory pathway by fructose in target tissues is thought to contribute to the suppression of the insulin signaling pathway producing systemic insulin resistance. Moreover, there is some evidence that high intake of fructose negatively affects both male and female reproductive systems and may lead to infertility. This review addresses dietary high-fructose-induced deteriorations that are obvious, especially in gut permeability, microbiota, abdominal fat accumulation, insulin signaling, and reproductive function. The recognition of the detrimental effects of fructose and the development of relevant new public health policies are necessary in order to prevent diet-related metabolic disorders.

Oxidative Stress Linking Obesity and Cancer: Is Obesity a 'Radical Trigger' to Cancer?

Obesity is on the rise worldwide, and consequently, obesity-related non-communicable diseases are as well. Nutritional overload induces metabolic adaptations in an attempt to restore the disturbed balance, and the byproducts of the mechanisms at hand include an increased generation of reactive species. Obesity-related oxidative stress causes damage to vulnerable systems and ultimately contributes to neoplastic transformation. Dysfunctional obese adipose tissue releases cytokines and induces changes in the cell microenvironment, promoting cell survival and progression of the transformed cancer cells. Other than the increased risk of cancer development, obese cancer patients experience higher mortality rates and reduced therapy efficiency as well. The fact that obesity is considered the second leading preventable cause of cancer prioritizes the research on the mechanisms connecting obesity to cancerogenesis and finding the solutions to break the link. Oxidative stress is integral at different stages of cancer development and advancement in obese patients. Hypocaloric, balanced nutrition, and structured physical activity are some tools for relieving this burden. However, the sensitivity of simultaneously treating cancer and obesity poses a challenge. Further research on the obesity-cancer liaison would offer new perspectives on prevention programs and treatment development.

Curcumin intake during lactation suppresses oxidative stress through upregulation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 in the kidneys of fructose-loaded female rat offspring exposed to maternal protein restriction

BACKGROUND

A high-fructose diet causes the progression of chronic kidney disease. Maternal malnutrition during pregnancy and lactation increases oxidative stress, leading to chronic renal diseases later in life. We investigated whether curcumin intake during lactation could suppress oxidative stress and regulate NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression in the kidneys of fructose-loaded female rat offspring exposed to maternal protein restriction.

METHODS

Pregnant Wistar rats received diets containing 20% (NP) or 8% (LP) casein and 0 or 2.5 g "highly absorptive curcumin" /kg diet containing-LP diets (LP/LP or LP/Cur) during lactation. At weaning, female offspring received either distilled water (W) or 10% fructose solution (Fr) and were divided into four groups: NP/NP/W, LP/LP/W, LP/LP/Fr, and LP/Cur/Fr. At week 13, glucose (Glc), triacylglycerol (Tg), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the plasma, macrophages number, fibrotic area, glutathione (GSH) levels, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, protein expression levels of Nrf2, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) in the kidneys were examined.

RESULTS

The plasma levels of Glc, TG, and MDA, the number of macrophages, and the percentage of fibrotic area in the kidneys of the LP/Cur/Fr group were significantly lower than those of the LP/LP/Fr group. The expression of Nrf2 and its downstream molecules HO-1 and SOD1, GSH levels, and GPx activity in the kidneys of the LP/Cur/Fr group were significantly higher than those of the LP/LP/Fr group.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal curcumin intake during lactation may suppress oxidative stress by upregulating Nrf2 expression in the kidneys of fructose-loaded female offspring exposed to maternal protein restriction.

Inflammatory potential of diet and risk of mortality in normal-weight adults with central obesity

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Inflammatory potential of diet may contribute to poor health outcomes in individuals with metabolic disorders. In a representative sample of the U.S. population, we investigated the association between consuming a pro-inflammatory diet and mortality risk in adults with normal range of body mass index (BMI) but with central obesity.

METHODS

This prospective cohort study included 3521 adults 20-90 years of age with normal BMI who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, 1988-1994 and did not have a history of cardiovascular disease (CVD) or cancer and did not change their dietary intake in the year preceding baseline measurements. Mortality from all causes, CVD, and cancer was ascertained from the National Death Index. Normal-weight central obesity (NWCO, n = 1777) was defined as those with BMI 18.5 to <25 kg/m2 and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) ≥0.85 in women and ≥0.90 in men. Severe central obesity was defined as WHR ≥0.92 in women and ≥1.00 in men. The dietary inflammatory index (DII®) was computed based on baseline dietary intake using 24-h dietary recalls, and associations with mortality were estimated using multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression.

RESULTS

In individuals with NWCO, DII score (i.e., more pro-inflammatory diet) was associated with increased risk of CVD mortality (HRT3 vs T1, 1.89 [95% CI, 1.01-3.53], P trend = 0.04; HR 1 SD increase 1.29 [95% CI, 1.06-1.57]). This association was stronger with more severe central obesity (HRT3 vs T1, 2.79 [95% CI, 1.10-7.03], P trend = 0.03; HR 1 SD increase 1.52 [95% CI, 1.05-2.21]). DII score was not associated with increased risk of mortality in normal-weight individuals without central obesity or with risk of cancer mortality in either group.

CONCLUSION

Among individuals in the normal-weight range of BMI, a pro-inflammatory diet assessed by high DII scores was associated with increased risk of CVD mortality in those with central obesity.

Appetite–regulating hormones in rats with fructose-induced metabolic changes

Objectives: The aim of this research is to examine the effects of fructose-drinking on the plasma levels of appetite-regulating hormones insulin, leptin and ghrelin in male and female rats.

Methods: Mature Wistar rats were divided as follows: two control groups - male (CM) and female (CF); two fructose-drinking groups - male (FDM) and female (FDF), received 15% fructose solution. The experiment lasted 11 weeks. At the end, insulin, leptin and ghrelin levels as well as lipid and glucose profile were assessed.

Results: Plasma concentrations of the examined hormones were elevated in fructose-drinking groups. However, in the FDM group only the leptin levels were significantly increased compared to the control. In the FDF group, all three appetite-regulating hormones showed the highest concentrations in comparison to the other groups.

Conclusion: Sex hormones may affect the appetite-regulation signals and could be a factor contributing to degree of metabolic changes caused by long-term fructose overconsumption.

Obesity-Induced Hepatic Steatosis Is Partly Mediated by Visceral Fat Accumulation in Subjects with Overweight/Obesity: A Cross-Sectional Study

INTRODUCTION

We explored whether visceral fat accumulation mediates the development of hepatic steatosis in individuals living with overweight and obesity.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study enrolled 769 outpatients with overweight and obesity aged 18-65 years. The controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) was used to quantify the degree of hepatic steatosis. Visceral fat accumulation, represented by the visceral fat area (VFA), was measured using magnetic resonance imaging. The associations of body mass index (BMI), VFA, and CAP with each other were assessed by univariate analysis, multivariate linear regression, and mediation analysis, respectively.

RESULTS

Compared with women, male subjects had higher BMI, VFA, and CAP levels. In both sex, CAP was positively correlated with BMI and VFA by the univariate analysis. After adjusting for demographic and serum characteristics, the linear correlation coefficients between BMI and CAP were 1.738 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.100, 2.377), 1.524 (95% CI: 0.798, 2.249), and 2.650 (95% CI: 1.292, 4.009) in all subjects, females, and males, respectively, while those between VFA and CAP were 0.190 (95% CI: 0.133, 0.247), 0.184 (95% CI: 0.117, 0.252), and 0.194 (95% CI: 0.086, 0.301). Mediation analysis showed that visceral fat accumulation contributed to 51.37%, 53.85%, and 26.51% of obesity-induced hepatic steatosis in the total, female, and male subjects, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Visceral fat accumulation partially mediates obesity-induced hepatic steatosis in individuals with overweight and obesity, especially in women. More focus on visceral fat reduction is needed in individuals with obesity.

Oxidative stress in obesity and insulin resistance

Since obesity is one of the main factors in the development of insulin resistance (IR) and is also associated with increased oxidative stress (OxS) rate, this study aims to review the published literature to collate and provide a comprehensive summary of the studies related to the status of the OxS in the pathogenesis of obesity and related IR. OxS represents an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) and the capacity of the antioxidant defense system (AOS) to neutralize RONS. A steady-state of RONS level is maintained through endogenous enzymatic and non-enzymatic AOS components. Three crucial enzymes, which suppress the formation of free radicals, are superoxide dismutases, catalases, and glutathione peroxidases. The second line of AOS includes non-enzymatic components such as vitamins C and E, coenzyme Q, and glutathione which neutralizes free radicals by donating electrons to RONS. Emerging evidence suggests that high RONS levels contribute to the progression of OxS in obesity by activating inflammatory pathways and thus leading to the development of pathological states, including IR. In addition, decreased level of AOS components in obesity increases the susceptibility to oxidative tissue damage and further progression of its comorbidities. Increased OxS in accumulated adipose tissue should be an imperative target for developing new therapies in obesity-related IR.