The mitochondrial Ras-related GTPase Miro: views from inside and outside the metazoan kingdom

Organelle Interactions in Plant Cells

The sequestration of enzymes and associated processes into sub-cellular domains, called organelles, is considered a defining feature of eukaryotic cells. However, what leads to specific outcomes and allows a eukaryotic cell to function singularly is the interactivity and exchanges between discrete organelles. Our ability to observe and assess sub-cellular interactions in living plant cells has expanded greatly following the creation of fluorescent fusion proteins targeted to different organelles. Notably, organelle interactivity changes quickly in response to stress and reverts to a normal less interactive state as homeostasis is re-established. Using key observations of some of the organelles present in a plant cell, this chapter provides a brief overview of our present understanding of organelle interactions in plant cells.

The damage-associated molecular pattern cellotriose alters the phosphorylation pattern of proteins involved in cellulose synthesis and trans-Golgi trafficking in Arabidopsis thaliana

We have recently demonstrated that the cellulose breakdown product cellotriose is a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) which induces responses related to the integrity of the cell wall. Activation of downstream responses requires the Arabidopsis malectin domain-containing CELLOOLIGOMER RECEPTOR KINASE1 (CORK1)¹. The cellotriose/CORK1 pathway induces immune responses, including NADPH oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species production, mitogen-activated protein kinase 3/6 phosphorylation-dependent defense gene activation, and the biosynthesis of defense hormones. However, apoplastic accumulation of cell wall breakdown products should also activate cell wall repair mechanisms. We demonstrate that the phosphorylation pattern of numerous proteins involved in the accumulation of an active cellulose synthase complex in the plasma membrane and those for protein trafficking to and within the trans-Golgi network (TGN) are altered within minutes after cellotriose application to Arabidopsis roots. The phosphorylation pattern of enzymes involved in hemicellulose or pectin biosynthesis and the transcript levels for polysaccharide-synthesizing enzymes responded barely to cellotriose treatments. Our data show that the phosphorylation pattern of proteins involved in cellulose biosynthesis and trans-Golgi trafficking is an early target of the cellotriose/CORK1 pathway.

Comparative analysis of mitochondrion-related organelles in anaerobic amoebozoans

Archamoebae comprises free-living or endobiotic amoebiform protists that inhabit anaerobic or microaerophilic environments and possess mitochondrion-related organelles (MROs) adapted to function anaerobically. We compared in silico reconstructed MRO proteomes of eight species (six genera) and found that the common ancestor of Archamoebae possessed very few typical components of the protein translocation machinery, electron transport chain and tricarboxylic acid cycle. On the other hand, it contained a sulphate activation pathway and bacterial iron-sulphur (Fe-S) assembly system of MIS-type. The metabolic capacity of the MROs, however, varies markedly within this clade. The glycine cleavage system is widely conserved among Archamoebae, except in Entamoeba, probably owing to its role in catabolic function or one-carbon metabolism. MRO-based pyruvate metabolism was dispensed within subgroups Entamoebidae and Rhizomastixidae, whereas sulphate activation could have been lost in isolated cases of Rhizomastix libera, Mastigamoeba abducta and Endolimax sp. The MIS (Fe-S) assembly system was duplicated in the common ancestor of Mastigamoebidae and Pelomyxidae, and one of the copies took over Fe-S assembly in their MRO. In Entamoebidae and Rhizomastixidae, we hypothesize that Fe-S cluster assembly in both compartments may be facilitated by dual localization of the single system. We could not find evidence for changes in metabolic functions of the MRO in response to changes in habitat; it appears that such environmental drivers do not strongly affect MRO reduction in this group of eukaryotes.

Keep in contact: multiple roles of endoplasmic reticulum-membrane contact sites and the organelle interaction network in plants

Functional regulation and structural maintenance of the different organelles in plants contribute directly to plant development, reproduction and stress responses. To ensure these activities take place effectively, cells have evolved an interconnected network amongst various subcellular compartments, regulating rapid signal transduction and the exchange of biomaterial. Many proteins that regulate membrane connections have recently been identified in plants, and this is the first step in elucidating both the mechanism and function of these connections. Amongst all organelles, the endoplasmic reticulum is the key structure, which likely links most of the different subcellular compartments through membrane contact sites (MCS) and the ER-PM contact sites (EPCS) have been the most intensely studied in plants. However, the molecular composition and function of plant MCS are being found to be different from other eukaryotic systems. In this article, we will summarise the most recent advances in this field and discuss the mechanism and biological relevance of these essential links in plants.

Reduced mitochondria provide an essential function for the cytosolic methionine cycle

The loss of mitochondria in oxymonad protists has been associated with the redirection of the essential Fe-S cluster assembly to the cytosol. Yet as our knowledge of diverse free-living protists broadens, the list of functions of their mitochondrial-related organelles (MROs) expands. We revealed another such function in the closest oxymonad relative, Paratrimastix pyriformis, after we solved the proteome of its MRO with high accuracy, using localization of organelle proteins by isotope tagging (LOPIT). The newly assigned enzymes connect to the glycine cleavage system (GCS) and produce folate derivatives with one-carbon units and formate. These are likely to be used by the cytosolic methionine cycle involved in S-adenosyl methionine recycling. The data provide consistency with the presence of the GCS in MROs of free-living species and its absence in most endobionts, which typically lose the methionine cycle and, in the case of oxymonads, the mitochondria.

A Nanobody-Based Toolset to Monitor and Modify the Mitochondrial GTPase Miro1

The mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM)-anchored GTPase Miro1, is a central player in mitochondrial transport and homeostasis. The dysregulation of Miro1 in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) suggests that Miro1 may be a potential biomarker or drug target in neuronal disorders. However, the molecular functionality of Miro1 under (patho-) physiological conditions is poorly known. For a more comprehensive understanding of the molecular functions of Miro1, we have developed Miro1-specific nanobodies (Nbs) as novel research tools. We identified seven Nbs that bind either the N- or C-terminal GTPase domain of Miro1 and demonstrate their application as research tools for proteomic and imaging approaches. To visualize the dynamics of Miro1 in real time, we selected intracellularly functional Nbs, which we reformatted into chromobodies (Cbs) for time-lapse imaging of Miro1. By genetic fusion to an Fbox domain, these Nbs were further converted into Miro1-specific degrons and applied for targeted degradation of Miro1 in live cells. In summary, this study presents a collection of novel Nbs that serve as a toolkit for advanced biochemical and intracellular studies and modulations of Miro1, thereby contributing to the understanding of the functional role of Miro1 in disease-derived model systems.

Miro1 provides neuroprotection via the mitochondrial trafficking pathway in a rat model of traumatic brain injury

The outer mitochondrial membrane protein mitochondrial Rho-GTPase 1 (Miro1) is known to be involved in the regulation of mitochondrial transport required for neuronal protection. Previous reports established that disruption of Miro1-dependent mitochondrial movement could result in nervous system diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. This study was designed to explore the expression and mechanisms of Miro1 in secondary brain injury after traumatic brain injury (TBI). A total of 115 male Sprague Dawley rats were used in the weight-drop TBI rat model, and Miro1 in vivo knockdown was performed 24 h before TBI modeling by treatment with Miro1 short-interfering RNA. Real-time polymerase chain reaction, western blot, immunofluorescence, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) level assay, neuronal apoptosis, brain water content measurement, and neurological score analyses were carried out. Our results showed that the mRNA and protein levels of Miro1 were increased after TBI and co-localized with neurons and astrocytes in the peri-injury cortex. Moreover, Miro1 knockdown further exacerbated neuronal apoptosis, brain edema, and neurological deficits at 48 h after TBI, accompanied by impaired mitochondrial transport, reduction of mitochondria number and energy deficiency. Additionally, the apoptosis-related factors Bax upregulation and Bcl-2 downregulation as Miro1 knockdown after TBI implied that antiapoptotic effects on neuroprotection of Miro1, which were verified by the Fluoro-Jade C (FJC) staining and TUNEL staining. In conclusion, these findings suggest that Miro1 probably plays a neuroprotective role against secondary brain injury through the mitochondria trafficking pathway, suggesting that enhancing Miro1 might be a new strategy for the treatment of TBI.

Miro (Mitochondrial Rho GTPase), a key player of mitochondrial axonal transport and mitochondrial dynamics in neurodegenerative diseases

Miro (mitochondrial Rho GTPases) a mitochondrial outer membrane protein, plays a vital role in the microtubule-based mitochondrial axonal transport, mitochondrial dynamics (fusion and fission) and Mito-Ca2+ homeostasis. It forms a major protein complex with Milton (an adaptor protein), kinesin and dynein (motor proteins), and facilitates bidirectional mitochondrial axonal transport such as anterograde and retrograde transport. By forming this protein complex, Miro facilitates the mitochondrial axonal transport and fulfills the neuronal energy demand, maintain the mitochondrial homeostasis and neuronal survival. It has been demonstrated that altered mitochondrial biogenesis, improper mitochondrial axonal transport, and mitochondrial dynamics are the early pathologies associated with most of the neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Being the sole mitochondrial outer membrane protein associated with mitochondrial axonal transport-related processes, Miro proteins can be one of the key players in various NDs such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Huntington's disease (HD). Thus, in the current review, we have discussed the evolutionarily conserved Miro proteins and its role in the pathogenesis of the various NDs. From this, we indicated that Miro proteins may act as a potential target for a novel therapeutic intervention for the treatment of various NDs.

Network Topological Analysis for the Identification of Novel Hubs in Plant Nutrition

Network analysis is a systems biology-oriented approach based on graph theory that has been recently adopted in various fields of life sciences. Starting from mitochondrial proteomes purified from roots of Cucumis sativus plants grown under single or combined iron (Fe) and molybdenum (Mo) starvation, we reconstructed and analyzed at the topological level the protein-protein interaction (PPI) and co-expression networks. Besides formate dehydrogenase (FDH), already known to be involved in Fe and Mo nutrition, other potential mitochondrial hubs of Fe and Mo homeostasis could be identified, such as the voltage-dependent anion channel VDAC4, the beta-cyanoalanine synthase/cysteine synthase CYSC1, the aldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH2B7, and the fumaryl acetoacetate hydrolase. Network topological analysis, applied to plant proteomes profiled in different single or combined nutritional conditions, can therefore assist in identifying novel players involved in multiple homeostatic interactions.

Regulation of peroxisomal trafficking and distribution

Peroxisomes are organelles that perform a wide range of essential metabolic processes. To ensure that peroxisomes are optimally positioned in the cell, they must be transported by both long- and short-range trafficking events in response to cellular needs. Here, we review our current understanding of the mechanisms by which the cytoskeleton and organelle contact sites alter peroxisomal distribution. Though the focus of the review is peroxisomal transport in mammalian cells, findings from flies and fungi are used for comparison and to inform the gaps in our understanding. Attention is given to the apparent overlap in regulatory mechanisms for mitochondrial and peroxisomal trafficking, along with the recently discovered role of the mitochondrial Rho-GTPases, Miro, in peroxisomal dynamics. Moreover, we outline and discuss the known pathological and pharmacological conditions that perturb peroxisomal positioning. We conclude by highlighting several gaps in our current knowledge and suggest future directions that require attention.

Miro2 tethers the ER to mitochondria to promote mitochondrial fusion in tobacco leaf epidermal cells

Mitochondria are highly pleomorphic, undergoing rounds of fission and fusion. Mitochondria are essential for energy conversion, with fusion favouring higher energy demand. Unlike fission, the molecular components involved in mitochondrial fusion in plants are unknown. Here, we show a role for the GTPase Miro2 in mitochondria interaction with the ER and its impacts on mitochondria fusion and motility. Mutations in AtMiro2's GTPase domain indicate that the active variant results in larger, fewer mitochondria which are attached more readily to the ER when compared with the inactive variant. These results are contrary to those in metazoans where Miro predominantly controls mitochondrial motility, with additional GTPases affecting fusion. Synthetically controlling mitochondrial fusion rates could fundamentally change plant physiology by altering the energy status of the cell. Furthermore, altering tethering to the ER could have profound effects on subcellular communication through altering the exchange required for pathogen defence.

Peroxisomal fission is modulated by the mitochondrial Rho-GTPases, Miro1 and Miro2

Peroxisomes are essential for a number of cellular functions, including reactive oxygen species metabolism, fatty acid β‐oxidation and lipid synthesis. To ensure optimal functionality, peroxisomal size, shape and number must be dynamically maintained; however, many aspects of how this is regulated remain poorly characterised. Here, we show that the localisation of Miro1 and Miro2—outer mitochondrial membrane proteins essential for mitochondrial trafficking—to peroxisomes is not required for basal peroxisomal distribution and long‐range trafficking, but rather for the maintenance of peroxisomal size and morphology through peroxisomal fission. Mechanistically, this is achieved by Miro negatively regulating Drp1‐dependent fission, a function that is shared with the mitochondria. We further find that the peroxisomal localisation of Miro is regulated by its first GTPase domain and is mediated by an interaction through its transmembrane domain with the peroxisomal‐membrane protein chaperone, Pex19. Our work highlights a shared regulatory role of Miro in maintaining the morphology of both peroxisomes and mitochondria, supporting a crosstalk between peroxisomal and mitochondrial biology.

Ectopic expression of Miro 1 ameliorates seizures and inhibits hippocampal neurodegeneration in a mouse model of pilocarpine epilepsy

Epilepsy is a common disease of the central nervous system. This study aimed to investigate the role of mitochondrial Rho (Miro) 1 in epilepsy, using a mouse model of pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE). Intraperitoneal injection of pilocarpine induced epileptic seizures in mice and significantly decreased Miro 1 expression in the hippocampus. Moreover, pilocarpine treatment increased the serum levels of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and S100 calcium binding protein B (S100B) and led to hippocampal neuronal injury and apoptosis. The intrinsic apoptotic pathway was activated in the hippocampal neurons following pilocarpine-induced SE, as evidenced by increased levels of cleaved caspase-3 and Bax, downregulation of Bcl-2, and the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria to cytoplasm. By contrast, forced expression of Miro 1 by lateral ventricular administration of adenovirus mitigated pilocarpine-induced epileptic seizures, reduced the elevation of HSP70 and S100B, and inhibited hippocampal neuronal apoptosis by suppressing the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. In summary, our data demonstrates that ectopic expression of Miro 1 alleviated pilocarpine-induced SE and protected hippocampal neurons by inhibiting the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. These findings provide new insights into epileptic disorders and suggest a potential neuroprotective value of Miro 1 in the treatment of epilepsy.

Proteomics and bioinformatics analyses identify novel cellular roles outside mitochondrial function for human miro GTPases

The human Miro GTPases (hMiros) have recently emerged as important mediators of mitochondrial transport and may significantly contribute to the development of disorders such as Alzheimer’s and schizophrenia. The hMiros represent two highly atypical members of the Ras superfamily, and exhibit several unique features: the presence of a GTPase domain at both the N-terminus and C-terminus, the presence of two calcium-binding EF-hand domains and localisation to the mitochondrial outer membrane. Here, elucidation of Miro GTPase signalling pathway components was achieved through the use of molecular biology, cell culture techniques and proteomics. An investigation of this kind has not been performed previously; we hoped, through these techniques, to enable the profiling and identification of pathways regulated by the human Miro GTPases. The results indicate several novel putative interaction partners for hMiro1 and hMiro2, including numerous proteins previously implicated in neurodegenerative pathways and the development of schizophrenia. Furthermore, we show that the N-terminal GTPase domain appears to fine-tune hMiro signalling, with GTP-bound versions of this domain associated with a diverse range of interaction partners in comparison to corresponding GDP-bound versions. Recent evidences suggest that human Miros participate in host–pathogen interactions with Vibrio Cholerae type III secretion proteins. We have undertaken a bioinformatics investigation to identify novel pathogenic effectors that might interact with Miros.

A role for Mitochondrial Rho GTPase 1 (MIRO1) in motility and membrane dynamics of peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are dynamic organelles which fulfil essential roles in lipid and ROS metabolism. Peroxisome movement and positioning allows interaction with other organelles and is crucial for their cellular function. In mammalian cells, such movement is microtubule-dependent and mediated by kinesin and dynein motors. The mechanisms of motor recruitment to peroxisomes are largely unknown, as well as the role this plays in peroxisome membrane dynamics and proliferation. Here, using a combination of microscopy, live-cell imaging analysis and mathematical modelling, we identify a role for Mitochondrial Rho GTPase 1 (MIRO1) as an adaptor for microtubule-dependent peroxisome motility in mammalian cells. We show that MIRO1 is targeted to peroxisomes and alters their distribution and motility. Using a peroxisome-targeted MIRO1 fusion protein, we demonstrate that MIRO1-mediated pulling forces contribute to peroxisome membrane elongation and proliferation in cellular models of peroxisome disease. Our findings reveal a molecular mechanism for establishing peroxisome-motor protein associations in mammalian cells and provide new insights into peroxisome membrane dynamics in health and disease.

Understanding Miro GTPases: Implications in the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders

The Miro GTPases represent an unusual subgroup of the Ras superfamily and have recently emerged as important mediators of mitochondrial dynamics and for maintaining neuronal health. It is now well-established that these enzymes act as essential components of a Ca²⁺-sensitive motor complex, facilitating the transport of mitochondria along microtubules in several cell types, including dopaminergic neurons. The Miros appear to be critical for both anterograde and retrograde mitochondrial transport in axons and dendrites, both of which are considered essential for neuronal health. Furthermore, the Miros may be significantly involved in the development of several serious pathological processes, including the development of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. In this review, we discuss the molecular structure and known mitochondrial functions of the Miro GTPases in humans and other organisms, in the context of neurodegenerative disease. Finally, we consider the potential human Miros hold as novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of such disease.

Extreme genome diversity in the hyper-prevalent parasitic eukaryote Blastocystis

Blastocystis is the most prevalent eukaryotic microbe colonizing the human gut, infecting approximately 1 billion individuals worldwide. Although Blastocystis has been linked to intestinal disorders, its pathogenicity remains controversial because most carriers are asymptomatic. Here, the genome sequence of Blastocystis subtype (ST) 1 is presented and compared to previously published sequences for ST4 and ST7. Despite a conserved core of genes, there is unexpected diversity between these STs in terms of their genome sizes, guanine-cytosine (GC) content, intron numbers, and gene content. ST1 has 6,544 protein-coding genes, which is several hundred more than reported for ST4 and ST7. The percentage of proteins unique to each ST ranges from 6.2% to 20.5%, greatly exceeding the differences observed within parasite genera. Orthologous proteins also display extreme divergence in amino acid sequence identity between STs (i.e., 59%-61% median identity), on par with observations of the most distantly related species pairs of parasite genera. The STs also display substantial variation in gene family distributions and sizes, especially for protein kinase and protease gene families, which could reflect differences in virulence. It remains to be seen to what extent these inter-ST differences persist at the intra-ST level. A full 26% of genes in ST1 have stop codons that are created on the mRNA level by a novel polyadenylation mechanism found only in Blastocystis. Reconstructions of pathways and organellar systems revealed that ST1 has a relatively complete membrane-trafficking system and a near-complete meiotic toolkit, possibly indicating a sexual cycle. Unlike some intestinal protistan parasites, Blastocystis ST1 has near-complete de novo pyrimidine, purine, and thiamine biosynthesis pathways and is unique amongst studied stramenopiles in being able to metabolize α-glucans rather than β-glucans. It lacks all genes encoding heme-containing cytochrome P450 proteins. Predictions of the mitochondrion-related organelle (MRO) proteome reveal an expanded repertoire of functions, including lipid, cofactor, and vitamin biosynthesis, as well as proteins that may be involved in regulating mitochondrial morphology and MRO/endoplasmic reticulum (ER) interactions. In sharp contrast, genes for peroxisome-associated functions are absent, suggesting Blastocystis STs lack this organelle. Overall, this study provides an important window into the biology of Blastocystis, showcasing significant differences between STs that can guide future experimental investigations into differences in their virulence and clarifying the roles of these organisms in gut health and disease.

Mitochondrial trafficking through Rhot1 is involved in the aggregation of germinal granule components during primordial germ cell formation in Xenopus embryos

In many animals, the germ plasm is sufficient and necessary for primordial germ cell (PGC) formation. It contains germinal granules and abundant mitochondria (germline-Mt). However, the role of germline-Mt in germ cell formation remains poorly understood. In Xenopus, the germ plasm is distributed as many small islands at the vegetal pole, which gradually aggregates to form a single large mass in each of the four vegetal pole cells at the early blastula stage. Polymerized microtubules and the adapter protein kinesin are required for the aggregation of germ plasm. However, it remains unknown whether germline-Mt trafficking is important for the cytoplasmic transport of germinal granules during germ plasm aggregation. In this study, we focused on the mitochondrial small GTPase protein Rhot1 to inhibit mitochondrial trafficking during the germ plasm aggregation. Expression of Rhot1ΔC, which lacks the C-terminal mitochondrial transmembrane domain, inhibited the aggregation of germline-Mt during early development. In Rhot1-inhibited embryos, germinal granule components did not aggregate during cleavage stages, which reduced the number of PGCs on the genital ridge at tail-bud stage. These results suggest that mitochondrial trafficking is involved in the aggregation of germinal granule components, which are essential for the formation of PGCs.

C. elegans miro-1 Mutation Reduces the Amount of Mitochondria and Extends Life Span

Mitochondria play a critical role in aging, however, the underlying mechanism is not well understood. We found that a mutation disrupting the C. elegans homolog of Miro GTPase (miro-1) extends life span. This phenotype requires simultaneous loss of miro-1 from multiple tissues including muscles and neurons, and is dependent on daf-16/FOXO. Notably, the amount of mitochondria in the miro-1 mutant is reduced to approximately 50% of the wild-type. Despite this reduction, oxygen consumption is only weakly reduced, suggesting that mitochondria of miro-1 mutants are more active than wild-type mitochondria. The ROS damage is slightly reduced and the mitochondrial unfolded protein response pathway is weakly activated in miro-1 mutants. Unlike previously described long-lived mitochondrial electron transport chain mutants, miro-1 mutants have normal growth rate. These results suggest that the reduction in the amount of mitochondria can affect the life span of an organism through activation of stress pathways.

MIRO GTPases in Mitochondrial Transport, Homeostasis and Pathology

The evolutionarily-conserved mitochondrial Rho (MIRO) small GTPase is a Ras superfamily member with three unique features. It has two GTPase domains instead of the one found in other small GTPases, and it also has two EF hand calcium binding domains, which allow Ca(2+)-dependent modulation of its activity and functions. Importantly, it is specifically associated with the mitochondria and via a hydrophobic transmembrane domain, rather than a lipid-based anchor more commonly found in other small GTPases. At the mitochondria, MIRO regulates mitochondrial homeostasis and turnover. In metazoans, MIRO regulates mitochondrial transport and organization at cellular extensions, such as axons, and, in some cases, intercellular transport of the organelle through tunneling nanotubes. Recent findings have revealed a myriad of molecules that are associated with MIRO, particularly the kinesin adaptor Milton/TRAK, mitofusin, PINK1 and Parkin, as well as the endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES) complex. The mechanistic aspects of the roles of MIRO and its interactors in mitochondrial homeostasis and transport are gradually being revealed. On the other hand, MIRO is also increasingly associated with neurodegenerative diseases that have roots in mitochondrial dysfunction. In this review, I discuss what is currently known about the cellular physiology and pathophysiology of MIRO functions.

Stargazing: Monitoring subcellular dynamics of brain astrocytes

Astrocytes are major non-neuronal cell types in the central nervous system that regulate a variety of processes in the brain including synaptic transmission, neurometabolism, and cerebrovasculature tone. Recent discoveries have revealed that astrocytes perform very specialized and heterogeneous roles in brain homeostasis and function. Exactly how astrocytes fulfill such diverse roles in the brain remains to be fully understood and is an active area of research. In this review, we focus on the complex subcellular anatomical features of protoplasmic gray matter astrocytes in the mature, healthy brain that likely empower these cells with the ability to detect and respond to changes in neuronal and synaptic activity. In particular, we discuss how intricate processes on astrocytes allow these cells to communicate with neurons and their synapses and strategically deliver specific cellular organelles such as mitochondria and ribosomes to active compartments within the neuropil. Understanding the properties of these structural elements will lead to a better understanding of how astrocytes function in the healthy and diseased brain.