Lewis A Glycans Are Present on Proteins Involved in Cell Wall Biosynthesis and Appear Evolutionarily Conserved Among Natural Arabidopsis thaliana Accessions

In-depth site-specific glycoproteomic analysis reveals ER-resident protein PDI regulating wheat yellow mosaic virus infection

N-glycosylation is crucial in the process of wheat yellow mosaic virus (WYMV) infection, but changes in site-specific N-glycosylation of proteins during WYMV infection have not been well studied. In this study, we employed an intact glycopeptide approach to analyze mock- and WYMV-infected wheat plants. We found that most glycoproteins have N-glycans containing paucimannose or complex/hybrid chains. Notably, the H3N2F1X1 N-glycan was the most prevalent, comprising 40 % of the total glycan abundance. Six glycan types showed an increasing trend of glycosylation in WYMV-infected wheat. Overall, 1202 unique N-glycopeptides corresponding to 53 N-glycans at 562 N-glycosylation sites in 456 N-glycoproteins were identified, and 176 N-glycopeptides from 115 glycoproteins were significantly regulated in WYMV-infected wheat. Bioinformatics analysis of the hyperglycosylated and hypoglycosylated glycoproteins indicated that two N-glycoproteins with significant regulatory differences were specifically related to protein quality control, endoplasmic reticulum stress response, and protein folding. Furthermore, the protein disulfide isomerase TaPDI 1-4 and TaPDI regulate WYMV infection, and their N-glycosylation is involved in the regulatory process. To our knowledge, this is the first study to analyze the differences and roles of protein N-glycosylation in wheat virus infection at the level of intact glycopeptides.

Engineering Nicotiana benthamiana for production of active cannabinoid synthases via secretory pathway optimization

The production of cannabinoid compounds such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabichromene (CBC) with potential pharmaceutical applications is growing sharply. However, challenges such as the low yield of minor cannabinoids, legal restrictions on cultivation, and the complexity and cost of purification from the Cannabis sativa plant necessitate a biotechnological approach. Since the biosynthetic pathway is disclosed, cannabinoids have been produced in yeast, insect cells and plants mainly by the heterologous expression of tetrahydrocannabinol acid synthase (THCAS). THCAS and cannabidiolic acid synthase (CBDAS) use cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) as a substrate. In this study, we transiently expressed recombinant forms of THCAS and CBDAS in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana. Our results demonstrate that efficient expression in the secretory pathway relies on replacing the endogenous signal peptide with a heterologous one. Both proteins were successfully secreted to the apoplast. MS-based analysis of the purified proteins revealed that they are heavily glycosylated with mainly Golgi-processed complex type N-glycans. In planta enzymatic removal of N-glycans indicated that glycosylation plays a role for CBDAS protein folding or stability. Finally, in vitro assays with CBGA showed that the plant-made recombinant CBDAS and THCAS are enzymatically active.

In Vivo Proximity Cross-Linking and Immunoprecipitation of Cell Wall Epitopes Identify Proteins Associated with the Biosynthesis of Matrix Polysaccharides

Identification of proteins involved in cell wall matrix polysaccharide biosynthesis is crucial to understand plant cell wall biology. We utilized in vivo cross-linking and immunoprecipitation with cell wall antibodies that recognized xyloglucan, xylan, mannan, and homogalacturonan to capture proteins associated with matrix polysaccharides in Arabidopsis protoplasts. The use of cross-linkers allowed us to capture proteins actively associated with cell wall polymers, including those directly interacting with glycans via glycan-protein (GP) cross-linkers and those associated with proteins linked to glycans via a protein-protein (PP) cross-linker. Immunoprecipitations led to the identification of 65 Arabidopsis protein IDs localized in the Golgi, ER, plasma membrane, and others without subcellular localization data. Among these, we found several glycosyltransferases directly involved in polysaccharide synthesis, along with proteins related to cell wall modification and vesicle trafficking. Protein interaction networks from DeepAraPPI and AtMAD databases showed interactions between various IDs, including those related to cell-wall-associated proteins and membrane/vesicle trafficking proteins. Gene expression and coexpression analyses supported the presence and relevance of the proteins to the cell wall processes. Reverse genetic studies using T-DNA insertion mutants of selected proteins revealed changes in cell wall composition and saccharification, further supporting their potential roles in cell wall biosynthesis. Overall, our approach represents a novel approach for studying cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis and associated proteins, providing advantages over traditional immunoprecipitation techniques. This study provides a list of putative proteins associated with different matrix polysaccharides for further investigation and highlights the complexity of cell wall biosynthesis and trafficking within plant cells.

Production of therapeutic glycoproteins in glycoengineered plant: old farm for new crops

Plant-based expression systems have emerged as promising avenues for the production of recombinant N-linked glycoproteins. This review offers insights into the evolution and progress of plant glycoengineering. It delves into the distinctive features of plant-derived N-glycans, the diverse range of plant hosts employed for glycoprotein synthesis, and the advancements in glycoengineering strategies aimed at generating glycoproteins with N-glycan structures akin to those produced in mammalian cell lines. Furthermore, alternative strategies for augmenting glycoengineering efforts and the current spectrum of applications for plant-produced N-glycan recombinant proteins are examined, underscoring their potential significance in biopharmaceutical manufacturing.

Crystal structure of mango α1,3/α1,4-fucosyltransferase elucidates unique elements that regulate Lewis A-dominant oligosaccharide assembly

In various organisms, α1,3/α1,4-fucosyltransferases (CAZy GT10 family enzymes) mediate the assembly of type I (Galβ1,3GlcNAc) and/or type II (Galβ1,4GlcNAc)-based Lewis structures that are widely distributed in glycoconjugates. Unlike enzymes of other species, plant orthologues show little fucosyltransferase activity for type II-based glycans and predominantly catalyze the assembly of the Lewis A structure [Galβ1,3(Fucα1,4)GlcNAc] on the type I disaccharide unit of their substrates. However, the structural basis underlying this unique substrate selectivity remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the structure-function relationship of MiFUT13A, a mango α1,3/α1,4-fucosyltransferase. The prepared MiFUT13A displayed distinct α1,4-fucosyltransferase activity. Consistent with the enzymatic properties of this molecule, X-ray crystallography revealed that this enzyme has a typical GT-B fold-type structure containing a set of residues that are responsible for its SN2-like catalysis. Site-directed mutagenesis and molecular docking analyses proposed a rational binding mechanism for type I oligosaccharides. Within the catalytic cleft, the pocket surrounding Trp121 serves as a binding site, anchoring the non-reducing terminal β1,3-galactose that belongs to the type I disaccharide unit. Furthermore, Glu177 was postulated to function as a general base catalyst through its interaction with the 4-hydroxy group of the acceptor N-acetylglucosamine residue. Adjacent residues, specifically Thr120, Thr157 and Asp175 were speculated to assist in binding of the reducing terminal residues. Intriguingly, these structural elements were not fully conserved in mammalian orthologue which also shows predominant α1,4-fucosyltransferase activity. In conclusion, we have proposed that MiFUT13A generates the Lewis A structure on type I glycans through a distinct mechanism, divergent from that of mammalian enzymes.

β1,3-galactosyltransferase on chromosome 6 is essential for the formation of Lewis a structure on N-glycan in Oryza sativa

β1,3-galactose is the component of outer-chain elongation of complex N-glycans that, together with α1,4-fucose, forms Lewis a structures in plants. Previous studies have revealed that N-glycan maturation is mediated by sequential attachment of β1,3-galactose and α1,4-fucose by individual β1,3-galactosyltransferase (GalT) and α1,4-fucosyltransferase (1,4-FucT), respectively. Although GalT from several species has been studied, little information about GalT from rice is available. I therefore characterized three GalT candidate genes on different chromosomes in Oryza sativa. Seeds of rice lines that had T-DNA insertions in regions corresponding to individual putative GalT genes were obtained from a Rice Functional Genomic Express Database and plants grown until maturity. Homozygotes were selected from the next generation by genotyping PCR, and used for callus induction. Callus extracts of two independent T-DNA mutant rice which have T-DNA insertions at the same gene on chromosome 6 but in different exons showed highly reduced band intensity on a western blots using an anti-Lewis a antibody. Cell extracts and cultured media from suspension culture of the one of these mutant rice were further analysed by N-glycan profiling using matrix-associated laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF). Identified N-glycan species containing β1,3-galactose from both cell extracts and cultured media of knock-out mutant were less than 0.5% of total N-glycans while that of WT cells were 9.8% and 49.1%, respectively. This suggests that GalT located on rice chromosome 6 plays a major role in N-glycan galactosylation, and mutations within it lead to blockage of Lewis a epitope formation.

Plant glycoengineering for designing next-generation vaccines and therapeutic proteins

Protein glycosylation has a huge impact on biological processes in all domains of life. The type of glycan present on a recombinant glycoprotein depends on protein intrinsic features and the glycosylation repertoire of the cell type used for expression. Glycoengineering approaches are used to eliminate unwanted glycan modifications and to facilitate the coordinated expression of glycosylation enzymes or whole metabolic pathways to furnish glycans with distinct modifications. The formation of tailored glycans enables structure-function studies and optimization of therapeutic proteins used in different applications. While recombinant proteins or proteins from natural sources can be in vitro glycoengineered using glycosyltransferases or chemoenzymatic synthesis, many approaches use genetic engineering involving the elimination of endogenous genes and introduction of heterologous genes to cell-based production systems. Plant glycoengineering enables the in planta production of recombinant glycoproteins with human or animal-type glycans that resemble natural glycosylation or contain novel glycan structures. This review summarizes key achievements in glycoengineering of plants and highlights current developments aiming to make plants more suitable for the production of a diverse range of recombinant glycoproteins for innovative therapies.

Critical considerations in N-glycoproteomics

N-Glycoproteomics, the system-wide study of glycans asparagine-linked to protein carriers, holds a unique and still largely untapped potential to provide deep insights into the complexity and dynamics of the heterogeneous N-glycoproteome. Despite the advent of innovative analytical and informatics tools aiding the analysis, N-glycoproteomics remains challenging and consequently largely restricted to specialised laboratories. Aiming to stimulate discussions of method harmonisation, data standardisation and reporting guidelines to make N-glycoproteomics more reproducible and accessible to the community, we here discuss critical considerations related to the design and execution of N-glycoproteomics experiments and highlight good practices in N-glycopeptide data collection, analysis, interpretation and sharing. Giving the rapid maturation and, expectedly, a wide-spread implementation of N-glycoproteomics capabilities across the community in future years, this piece aims to point out common pitfalls, to encourage good data sharing and documentation practices, and to highlight practical solutions and strategies to enhance the insight into the N-glycoproteome.

N-glycoproteins in Plant Cell Walls: A Survey

Cell walls are an extracellular compartment specific to plant cells, which are not found in animal cells. Their composition varies between cell types, plant species, and physiological states. They are composed of a great diversity of polymers, i.e., polysaccharides, proteins, and lignins. Cell wall proteins (CWPs) are major players involved in the plasticity of cell walls which support cell growth and differentiation, as well as adaptation to environmental changes. In order to reach the extracellular space, CWPs are transported through the secretory pathway where they may undergo post-translational modifications, including N-glycosylations on the Asn residues in specific motifs (Asn-X-Ser/Thr-X, with X≠Pro). This review aims at providing a survey of the present knowledge related to cell wall N-glycoproteins with (i) an overview of the experimental workflows, (ii) a selection of relevant articles dedicated to N-glycoproteomics, (iii) a description of the diversity of N-glycans, and (iv) a focus on the importance of N-glycans for CWP structure and/or function.

Integrated DNA methylation, transcriptome and physiological analyses reveal new insights into superiority of poplars formed by interspecific grafting

Plant grafting has a long history and it is extensively employed to improve plant performance. In our previous research, reciprocal grafts of Populus cathayana Rehder (C) and Populus deltoides Bart. Ex Marsh (D) were generated. The results showed that interspecific grafting combinations (scion/rootstock: C/D and D/C) grew better than intraspecific grafting combinations (C/C and D/D). To further understand differences in molecular mechanisms between interspecific and intraspecific grafting, we performed an integrated analysis, including bisulfite sequencing, RNA sequencing and measurements of physiological indicators, to investigate leaves of different grafting combinations. We found that the difference at the genome-wide methylation level was greater in D/C vs D/D than in C/D vs C/C, but no difference was detected at the transcription level in D/C vs D/D. Furthermore, the grafting superiority of D/C vs D/D was not as strong as that of C/D vs C/C. These results may be associated with the different methylation forms, mCHH (71.76%) and mCG (57.16%), that accounted for the highest percentages in C/D vs C/C and D/C vs D/D, respectively. In addition, the interspecific grafting superiority was found mainly related to the process of photosynthesis, phytohormone signal transduction, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, cell wall and transcriptional regulation based on both physiological and molecular results. Overall, the results indicated that the physiological and molecular phenotypes of grafted plants are affected by the interaction between scion and rootstock. Thus, our study provides a theoretical basis for developing suitable scion-rootstock combinations for grafted plants.

Spatial Mapping of Plant N-Glycosylation Cellular Heterogeneity Inside Soybean Root Nodules Provided Insights Into Legume-Rhizobia Symbiosis

Although ubiquitously present, information on the function of complex N-glycan posttranslational modification in plants is very limited and is often neglected. In this work, we adopted an enzyme-assisted matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging strategy to visualize the distribution and identity of N-glycans in soybean root nodules at a cellular resolution. We additionally performed proteomics analysis to probe the potential correlation to proteome changes during symbiotic rhizobia-legume interactions. Our ion images reveal that intense N-glycosylation occurs in the sclerenchyma layer, and inside the infected cells within the infection zone, while morphological structures such as the cortex, uninfected cells, and cells that form the attachment with the root are fewer N-glycosylated. Notably, we observed different N-glycan profiles between soybean root nodules infected with wild-type rhizobia and those infected with mutant rhizobia incapable of efficiently fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The majority of complex N-glycan structures, particularly those with characteristic Lewis-a epitopes, are more abundant in the mutant nodules. Our proteomic results revealed that these glycans likely originated from proteins that maintain the redox balance crucial for proper nitrogen fixation, but also from enzymes involved in N-glycan and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. These findings indicate the possible involvement of Lewis-a glycans in these critical pathways during legume-rhizobia symbiosis.

Recent Developments in Deciphering the Biological Role of Plant Complex N-Glycans

Asparagine (N)-linked protein glycosylation is a ubiquitous co- and posttranslational modification which has a huge impact on the biogenesis and function of proteins and consequently on the development, growth, and physiology of organisms. In mammals, N-glycan processing carried out by Golgi-resident glycosidases and glycosyltransferases creates a number of structurally diverse N-glycans with specific roles in many different biological processes. In plants, complex N-glycan modifications like the attachment of β1,2-xylose, core α1,3-fucose, or the Lewis A-type structures are evolutionary highly conserved, but their biological function is poorly known. Here, I highlight recent developments that contribute to a better understanding of these conserved glycoprotein modifications and discuss future directions to move the field forward.

Transient Expression of Glycosylated SARS-CoV-2 Antigens in Nicotiana benthamiana

The current COVID-19 pandemic very dramatically shows that the world lacks preparedness for novel viral diseases. In addition to newly emerging viruses, many known pathogenic viruses such as influenza are constantly evolving, leading to frequent outbreaks with severe diseases and deaths. Hence, infectious viruses are a recurrent burden to our daily life, and powerful strategies to stop the spread of human pathogens and disease progression are of utmost importance. Transient plant-based protein expression is a technology that allows fast and highly flexible manufacturing of recombinant viral proteins and, thus, can contribute to infectious disease detection and prevention. This review highlights recent progress in the transient production of viral glycoproteins in N. benthamiana with a focus on SARS-CoV-2-derived viral antigens.

O-methylated N-glycans Distinguish Mosses from Vascular Plants

In the animal kingdom, a stunning variety of N-glycan structures have emerged with phylogenetic specificities of various kinds. In the plant kingdom, however, N-glycosylation appears to be strictly conservative and uniform. From mosses to all kinds of gymno- and angiosperms, land plants mainly express structures with the common pentasaccharide core substituted with xylose, core α1,3-fucose, maybe terminal GlcNAc residues and Lewis A determinants. In contrast, green algae biosynthesise unique and unusual N-glycan structures with uncommon monosaccharides, a plethora of different structures and various kinds of O-methylation. Mosses, a group of plants that are separated by at least 400 million years of evolution from vascular plants, have hitherto been seen as harbouring an N-glycosylation machinery identical to that of vascular plants. To challenge this view, we analysed the N-glycomes of several moss species using MALDI-TOF/TOF, PGC-MS/MS and GC-MS. While all species contained the plant-typical heptasaccharide with no, one or two terminal GlcNAc residues (MMXF, MGnXF and GnGnXF, respectively), many species exhibited MS signals with 14.02 Da increments as characteristic for O-methylation. Throughout all analysed moss N-glycans, the level of methylation differed strongly even within the same family. In some species, methylated glycans dominated, while others had no methylation at all. GC-MS revealed the main glycan from Funaria hygrometrica to contain 2,6-O-methylated terminal mannose. Some mosses additionally presented very large, likewise methylated complex-type N-glycans. This first finding of the methylation of N-glycans in land plants mirrors the presumable phylogenetic relation of mosses to green algae, where the O-methylation of mannose and many other monosaccharides is a common trait.

Impact of Specific N-Glycan Modifications on the Use of Plant-Produced SARS-CoV-2 Antigens in Serological Assays

The receptor binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein plays a key role in the virus-host cell interaction, and viral infection. The RBD is a major target for neutralizing antibodies, whilst recombinant RBD is commonly used as an antigen in serological assays. Such assays are essential tools to gain control over the pandemic and detect the extent and durability of an immune response in infected or vaccinated populations. Transient expression in plants can contribute to the fast production of viral antigens, which are required by industry in high amounts. Whilst plant-produced RBDs are glycosylated, N-glycan modifications in plants differ from humans. This can give rise to the formation of carbohydrate epitopes that can be recognized by anti-carbohydrate antibodies present in human sera. For the performance of serological tests using plant-produced recombinant viral antigens, such cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCDs) could result in false positives. Here, we transiently expressed an RBD variant in wild-type and glycoengineered Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and characterized the impact of different plant-specific N-glycans on RBD reactivity in serological assays. While the overall performance of the different RBD glycoforms was comparable to each other and to a human cell line produced RBD, there was a higher tendency toward false positive results with sera containing allergy-related CCD-antibodies when an RBD carrying β1,2-xylose and core α1,3-fucose was used. These rare events could be further minimized by pre-incubating sera from allergic individuals with a CCD-inhibitor. Thereby, false positive signals obtained from anti-CCD antibodies, could be reduced by 90%, on average.

Sweet Modifications Modulate Plant Development

Plant development represents a continuous process in which the plant undergoes morphological, (epi)genetic and metabolic changes. Starting from pollination, seed maturation and germination, the plant continues to grow and develops specialized organs to survive, thrive and generate offspring. The development of plants and the interplay with its environment are highly linked to glycosylation of proteins and lipids as well as metabolism and signaling of sugars. Although the involvement of these protein modifications and sugars is well-studied, there is still a long road ahead to profoundly comprehend their nature, significance, importance for plant development and the interplay with stress responses. This review, approached from the plants' perspective, aims to focus on some key findings highlighting the importance of glycosylation and sugar signaling for plant development.