Sexual Double Standard: A Psychometric Study From a Macropsychological Perspective Among the Spanish Heterosexual Population

Only "yes" means "yes": Negotiation of Sex and Its Link With Sexual Violence

Lack of consent is an essential characteristic of sexual violence. The present study was conducted to analyze the relation between sexual consent and the risk of perpetrating sexual aggression by men and victimization suffered by women in more depth. The sample consisted of 1681 heterosexual Spanish men and women aged 18-66 years. The participants completed an online survey containing the Spanish versions of the Sexual Consent Scale Revised and the Sexual Experiences Survey. The results showed that 70.2% of the women had been sexual victims, and 20.8% of men reported having perpetrated sexual violence. On the one hand, sexual aggressors, unlike non aggressors, underestimated the relevance of obtaining sexual consent, and more aggressors reported lack of perceived behavioral control for requesting sexual consent and endorsed less positive attitudes to obtain sexual consent than non aggressors. On the other hand, sexual victims, compared to non victims, considered requesting explicit sexual consent relevant, but held certain ideas, attitudes, and behaviors that did not go along with obtaining sexual consent, which leaves women in a position of vulnerability.

Examining the Sexual Double Standards and Hypocrisy in Partner Suitability Appraisals Within a Norwegian Sample

Sexual double standards are social norms that impose greater social opprobrium on women versus men or that permit one sex greater sexual freedom than the other. This study examined sexual double standards when choosing a mate based on their sexual history. Using a novel approach, participants (N = 923, 64% women) were randomly assigned to make evaluations in long-term or short-term mating contexts and asked how a prospective partner's sexual history would influence their own likelihood of having sex (short-term) or entering a relationship (long-term) with them. They were then asked how the same factors would influence the appraisal they would make of male and female friends in a similar position. We found no evidence of traditional sexual double standards for promiscuous or sexually undesirable behavior. There was some evidence for small sexual double standard for self-stimulation, but this was in the opposite direction to that predicted. There was greater evidence for sexual hypocrisy as sexual history tended to have a greater negative impact on suitor assessments for the self rather than for same-sex friends. Sexual hypocrisy effects were more prominent in women, though the direction of the effects was the same for both sexes. Overall, men were more positive about women's self-stimulation than women wee, particularly in short-term contexts. Socially undesirable sexual behavior (unfaithfulness, mate poaching, and jealous/controlling) had a large negative impact on appraisals of a potential suitor across all contexts and for both sexes. Effects of religiosity, disgust, sociosexuality, and question order effects are considered.

Sexually Explicit Material and Its Relationship with Sociodemographic Variables, Sexual Satisfaction, and Relationship Satisfaction in a Spanish Sample

Previous research that has examined the use of sexually explicit material (SEM) in the Spanish population and its relationship with sociodemographic variables, sexual satisfaction, and satisfaction with the relationship are practically non-existent. Therefore, the main goal was to analyze the pattern of use of SEM (frequency, format, context, content, and purpose of its use) and its relationship with sociodemographic variables (sex, age, sexual orientation, educational level, religiosity, status of partner, number of sexual partners, and age of first exposure to SEM), sexual satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction. The sample consisted of 221 participants, with an average age equal to 29.88 years (SD = 9.73) and of Spanish nationality. All participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, as well as the Spanish adaptations of the Sexual Media Questionnaire, Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction, and Global Measure of Relationship Satisfaction. Based on the results, it was found that men use SEM more frequently than women, that the age of first exposure is 14 years old, the most used pattern of SEM is internet websites with sexual content in which adult men and women appear, and the way to visualize it is alone as private stimulation. In addition, it was shown that a higher frequency of SEM use implies a decrease in sexual satisfaction and vice versa, while there is no association between the frequency of SEM use and satisfaction with the relationship. The importance of considering the use of SEM, both in research on sexual satisfaction and in clinical practice, is discussed.

Sexual double standard: A gender-based prejudice referring to sexual freedom and sexual shyness

The sexual double standard (SDS) consists of judging men and women differently for the same sexual behavior. This study contributes to research on the factors that determine inconsistent adherence to the SDS. It uses a descriptive methodology to analyze the association between individual and contextual factors both with adherence to the SDS, and with four SDS adherence typologies (man-favorable SDS, woman-favorable SDS, egalitarian and ambivalent). A total of 1,206 heterosexual Spanish adults (603 men and 603 women) participated. The mean age in the male sample was 41.7 (SD = 14.25), in the female sample M = 40.84 (SD = 14.24). The results show that the conceptualization of SDS as a gender-based prejudice is valid to understand the bias of ingroup favoritism that SDS implies: adherence to SDS is more related to the identity of the gender role of men (vs. women). In addition, evidence is provided that the normative context and domain of sexual behavior (i.e., sexual freedom or sexual shyness) determine the form that SDS adopts to express itself. The domain of behaviors related to sexual shyness (vs. domain related to sexual freedom) better discriminates between the different four SDS adherence typologies. The importance of adopting different levels of analysis (i.e., individual, intergroup, societal) to explain and predict both SDS adherence and the prevalence of SDS adherence typologies is discussed.

Psychometric properties of the Sexual Double Standard Scale (DSS) in Chilean university students: Differences according to sex, gender attitudes, and religiosity

Given the complete lack of instruments in Chile to measure the phenomenon of the sexual double standard (SDS), this study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the sexual double standard scale (DSS). The sample contained 1036 university students from central and southern Chile. 61.1% (n = 633) were women, the average age was 20.4 years, and 31.7% (n = 259) identified as atheist or agnostic. The DSS demonstrated a unidimensional structure, excellent reliability, and evidence of convergent and discriminant validity: the higher the score in SDS, the greater the stereotypical attitudes about gender and the lower the transcendent attitudes. The religious participants obtained higher mean scores on the DSS and men obtained significantly higher SDS scores than women. In addition, the group of participants with extreme stereotypical attitudes obtained significantly higher scores on the DSS than the extreme transcendent attitudes group, in both men and women samples. Based on the evidence that links the SDS with sexual functioning and satisfaction, risky sexual practices, sexual aggression and victimization, and intimate partner violence, the DSS stands out as a contribution to the development of sex-affective education programs and the identification of individuals and groups at risk.

Study of Sexual Satisfaction in Different Typologies of Adherence to the Sexual Double Standard

The sexual double standard (SDS) refers to the acceptance of different criteria to assess the same sexual behavior in men and women. To date, the few studies that have addressed the relationship between SDS and sexual satisfaction have obtained inconclusive results. In addition, no study has analyzed sexual satisfaction in people who maintain different forms of adherence to the SDS. This study establishes three SDS typologies of adherence (man-favorable, woman-favorable, egalitarian) in two areas of sexual behavior (sexual freedom and sexual shyness) to examine the predictive capacity of personal variables (age, social dominance orientation, propensity for sexual excitation/inhibition), interpersonal variables (relationship satisfaction) and social variables (gender norms about sexual behaviors) in sexual satisfaction. A sample of 1194 heterosexual adults (51.1% men, 48.8% women) aged between 18 and 87 years (M = 40.63; SD = 15.67), who had been in a relationship for more than 6 months, was evaluated. In men, the highest sexual satisfaction levels were obtained in the egalitarian typology in the sexual freedom area. In women, no significant differences were found between the typologies of adherence to the SDS. Regression models showed that relationship satisfaction was the main predictor of sexual satisfaction in all the typologies in both men and women. In addition, the predictive relationship of personal variables with sexual satisfaction varied according to gender and the SDS adherence type. The results show the importance of studying sexual satisfaction by taking into account not only the differences between men and women. Furthermore, it is essential to consider other differences between people; for example, the difference that derives from the way of psychologically internalizing attitude toward the SDS.

Catching up! The sexual behaviour and opinions of Italian students (2000–2017)

While sexuality has radically changed across middle–high-income societies in recent years, only outdated studies are available for Italy. We aim to provide novel insights into the sexual behaviour and opinions of young Italians diachronically and through a gendered lens. Our analysis compares the results of two national samples of university students collected in 2000 and 2017. The sexual behaviour and opinions of young men and women seem to be converging in several respects. We observed a feminisation of male opinions and behaviour within couples, which is to say that men are more likely to experience first intercourse with a young woman of roughly the same age while in a stable relationship, and betray—or accept betrayal—with less frequency and willingness than in the past. Similarly, we found a masculinisation of female opinions and behaviour outside of stable relationships, for example, an increase in occasional partners, a net drop in the expectation that other women hold virgin status before marriage, and a doubling of the acceptance of casual sex. A few gender differences remain, especially concerning sexual double standards: young men and women are still subject to diverse rules guiding their sexual behaviour. Finally, acceptance of homosexuality has risen substantially—particularly among women.

Invariance of the Sexual Double Standard Scale: A Cross-Cultural Study

The Sexual Double Standard (SDS) is an instrument used to judge sexual behavior, in which men are usually granted greater sexual freedom, while the same sexual behavior is condemned in women. Culture can be a relevant variable for the SDS. Therefore, we have examined the measurement invariance of the Sexual Double Standard Scale (SDSS) across the Spanish and Colombian populations, comparing this phenomenon by country and gender. The scale comprises two factors: sexual freedom and sexual shyness. The sample consisted of 1832 heterosexual adults (46.3% men, 53.7% women), 54.3% of whom were Spanish and 45.7% Colombian. Strong invariance was found. The reliability values were good for country and gender. Men and women from both countries supported greater freedom for themselves compared to the other gender. Furthermore, Spanish women, unlike their Colombian counterparts, supported greater sexual shyness for men. Thus, what some authors have labeled as a "reverse sexual double standard" seems to emerge.